ELL, ESL, and Language Exchange in Immigrants' Lives

Literacy's Importance & How To Support Literacy Activities in Your Community

Introduction

English's prevalence in America makes English language literacy vital for immigrants’ success, involvement, and well-being in the United States. Lack of proficiency is often an economic, social, political, and cultural barrier for many immigrants. This story map serves as a resource for individuals or communities seeking to support language acquisition.

What is Literacy?

Literacy is “the ability, confidence, and willingness to engage with language to acquire, construct and communicate meaning in all aspects of daily living” (Alberta Education). Literacy is more than just reading and writing skills, it is using language to communicate emotions and thoughts to others in a variety of important situations. This broader definition of literacy is important to keep in mind when supporting an individual on their language acquisition journey.

Fast Facts to Know About English Language Learning in the U.S.

First, look at this map and graph and read the corresponding texts.

  • EL stands for "English Learner" and ELL stands for "English Language Learner," which are used interchangeably
  • ESL stands for "English as a Second Language" referring to programs that teach English to non-native speakers
  • Over 4,800,000 English learners enrolled in public schools, shown in percentages by state in the map on the right (U.S. Dept. of Education).
  • Between 2009-2010 and 2014-2015, the percentage of ELL students grew in over half of U.S. states, and grew by 40% in five states (U.S. Dept. of Education)
  • Among EL students, Spanish is the most common home language and a majority of ELL students are Hispanic or Latino. However, ELLs speak a wide variety of languages and come from a wide variety of ethnic backgrounds (U.S. Department of Education).

Now, browse this map, clicking on the legend in the bottom left corner, to see where and what languages other than English people speak in their homes. Use the map to understand where other language communities exist in your area.

Second, browse this map. Click on the legend again, showing where adults with limited English skills are located in the US. Because their schooling years have passed and they must support their family, adults often face challenges in acquiring English skills.

Finally, pursue this map. It shows the percent of bilingual adults in an area's population. Although being bilingual comes with challenges as well, it is a necessary goal for immigrants for a number of reasons, which native English speakers can assist in achieving.

Want to Learn More?

For additional visualizations and statistics on English language learners in the US  click here .

The Rest of this Site Will:

  • Provide more information on the many ways literacy affects immigrants and their families' well-being in the U.S.
  • Explain how language exchange and learning activities facilitate acquisition
  • Illustrate how congregations and communities can assist by creating activities that empower immigrants in their language-learning journey
  • Expand congregations' knowledge of underrepresented populations in the U.S. and their communities

Effects of ELL: English Literacy on Immigrants' Livelihoods

Individuals and organizations should know how language influences the daily lives of immigrants to best support language acquisition.

Why is Literacy Important to Immigrant Communities?

Literacy impacts immigrants in the following ways:

  • Returns to Human Capital 
  • Job Opportunities
  • Social Integration and Size of Social Network
  • Political Participation and Civic Engagement
  • Educational Attainment
  • Health Outcomes and Healthcare 
  • Family Life

Economic Security

Influence of language acquisition on Immigrant’s Wages, Economic Mobility, and Labor Force Participation 

Wages

  • An increase in language proficiency is associated with higher wages for immigrants (Skinner et al.).
  • Individuals who spent six months in an English language learning program were associated with a 9% increase in hourly wages (Modestino et al.).
  • A 2005 study examining immigrant English language skills found that immigrants with the lowest rates of English proficiency also had the lowest income levels compared to others with higher proficiency rates (Day and Shin).

Economic mobility 

Similar to the scholarship on wages, an increase in language acquisition is associated with higher rates of economic mobility (Skinner et al.). The scholarship often views language acquisition as an investment in human capital. Oftentimes, jobs that are either high paying or offer opportunities for career advancement require English language skills which puts immigrants who are otherwise qualified for the position but have limited English skills at a disadvantage (Modestino et al.). 

Labor force participation

Studies often link increased language learning to increased labor force participation rates (Skinner et al.). Individuals enrolled for six months in an English learning class, increased their hours of work by 13% (Modestino et al.). When comparing individuals with limited English, women are more likely to face employment issues when compared to their male counterparts (Modestino et al.).

Bureaucracy and Information

The effect of language barriers on navigating bureaucratic institutions and obtaining information in government, financial, & health services

American bureaucracy is extremely inaccessible to non-native English speakers. For immigrant parents, government, medical, and financial forms are difficult to complete without English proficiency. 

Government services

Individuals with limited English proficiency struggle to navigate and understand government documents and databases, often only available in English (Harvey and Brazier). An immigrant enrolled in an English language course reported that they previously had to rely on their child for financial management and government services. After enrolling in the course, they reported that they “feel free now” and can manage their tasks independently (Chao and Mantero). 

Financial services

Non-native English speakers are more likely to rely on financial services such as payday lenders as an alternative to banks. Financial services are challenging to navigate with limited English proficiency, and as a result, many individuals are taken advantage of by exploitative financial institutions (Modestino et al.).

Health services 

Individuals with limited English often struggle to receive adequate healthcare and health management. Specifically, the language barrier between healthcare providers and patients makes it difficult to provide treatments and discuss health concerns, resulting in poor health outcomes (Pandey et al.).

Familial Relationships

Intergenerational Dynamics

Immigrant families are typically comprised of different generations (Census Bureau): 

  • 1st Generation: Those who are foreign born and immigrate as a late teenager or adult (ages 13 & up)
  • 1.5 Generation: Those who immigrated during their early teens (ages 6-12)
  • 2nd Generation: Those who have at least one foreign born-parent, often born in the country their parents immigrated to

Differences in immigrants' generation often correspond to differences in language proficiency and impact relationships within the family. Children who arrived in the United States at a young age (1.5 generation) struggle to learn English in school while using their first language at home with their family. However, English often becomes their dominant language, and they stop speaking their first language at home with their parents (Chao and Mantero). Similar to the 1.5 generation, children born in the US (2nd generation) with immigrant parents also experience difficulties communicating with first-generation immigrants like their parents and grandparents. This gap between (grand)parents and children’s English skills can make familial relationships difficult in several ways, such as:

  • Strained communication between parents and children or grandparents and children
  • Children serving as English translators and mediators in English-speaking conversations, resulting in a loss in parental authority and independence and overburdening the child (Chao and Mantero, Taylor-Leech and Yates)
  • Children losing the ability to speak and interact with those who speak their first language, losing an aspect of their cultural identity and familial history (Chiswick and Miller)
  • Parents lacking the language skills to engage in their children’s school's administration, thus being barred from being involved in their educational and developmental lives (Chiswick and Miller, Chao and Mantero)

How Can You Help?

Given the vast effects literacy has on immigrants' livelihoods, organizations can make a difference through a number of actions on micro scales.

Building Relationships with Immigrant Communities

Importance of Building Relationships with English Learners

One of the most important things to remember when building and maintaining meaningful relationships is to be aware of and understand immigrant communities. Awareness of their communities' different values and their own cultural and linguistic backgrounds is essential when helping with language acquisition.

Recognize cultural differences and similarities as mediating tools that can open doors to stronger understanding and communication. Being personable, comforting, and creating opportunities for English Learners to express themselves are significant in helping them use their language skills and build relationships. 

Some quick tips to follow:

  • Ask the right questions: Use open questions for more descriptive answers rather than a simple yes-or-no response (Francis, Haines, and Nagro)
  • Test boundaries without being overbearing: Be willing to cross the line that divides public issues and private needs (Jiménez and Rose)
    • This helps with opening up relationships to different levels. It also can help English Learners and immigrant communities indicate that you care for them, building trust. 
  • Continue to make an effort when building relationships: consistency helps
  • Check your own and others’ nonverbal communication cues and body language: what does everyone's nonverbal communication indicate? 
    • Facial expressions, gestures, body language, movement, space, eye contact, and touch all matters

Read this article from ¡Colorín Colorado! and browse some of their other resources for additional details on relationship building.

Immigrant’s Opportunities to Use English in the Community: 

For many immigrants, their daily lifestyle and social circles do not require them to use a lot of English. Here are some reasons why immigrants may not use English: 

  • They live in a location with a racial or ethnic makeup similar to theirs. The English Learner may feel like they don't need to know English as they can communicate in their native tongue. 
  • Low levels of confidence: “Self-consciousness, anxiety, embarrassment, shyness, and downright fear inhibited their use of English” (Taylor-Leech and Yates)

One study shows “English learners who take more initiative in the outside world by using more English. Once they improved, progress was rapid and was accompanied by greater confidence” (Taylor-Leech and Yates). Although English Learners also need to take the initiative, there are many ways that you can guide and create a space where English Learners can build their confidence and allow themselves to initiate interactions and conversations. In return, these interactions and conversations will help English Learners feel a sense of accomplishment, raise their self-esteem, and open the door to building connections. 

Facts, Ideas, and Methods to Keep in Mind in Daily Social Interactions

Implementing Language Learning Strategies (LLS) can help support and build relationships with immigrant communities while assisting them in improving their English. 

LLS's are “tools for the active, self-directed involvement needed to develop second language communication skills or specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques that students use to improve their second language development” (Taylor-Leech and Yates).

Here are some examples of Language Learning Strategies and how to implement them in daily interactions:

Language Exchange Activities and Methods To Be Held in Your Organization or Community

Depending on your congregation or community population, language exchange activities can aid in the development of literacy skills and community. Church-based adult ESL programs across the US have been successful in creating literacy programs that facilitate valuable language exchange within their communities. Key qualities of these activities are:

  • Emphasizing language exchange instead of language assimilation with participants
  • Facilitating literacy interactions across multiple generations
  • Fostering critical reflection and action on literacy issues

Language Exchange and Including Multiple Generations

Congregations and nonprofits should use immigrants’ first languages and cultures as segues and introductions into English language learning classes and activities. Activity examples include:

  • Posting information, media, or worship resources in other languages around the congregation or classroom
  • Organize visits for immigrant parents to their child’s school classes to share aspects of their language or culture
  • Allow space for immigrants to write stories about their immigration journey to share with their families (Chao and Mantero)

These activity examples importantly use parents’ linguistic diversity as a springboard to promote pride in their home languages and facilitate bilingualism. In parents’ visits to their children’s classes, they can practice communicating with English, share aspects of their native language and culture through fun activities, and become involved in their child’s school community. Parents' pride in bilingualism gives children the confidence to use both English and their home language to develop connections to multiple communities, rather than lose connection through the pressure to assimilate. (Chao and Mantero). Sharing stories with family members across generations develops pride, understanding, communication, and literacy between immigrants, their family, their community, and affirms multiple language practices.

Critical Reflection and Action

Activities should also create critical reflection and space to take action regarding literacy issues in the U.S. They should challenge the system of communication and power which has placed some immigrants at a disadvantage in American society. Truly educational activities name problems, reflect critically on why those problems exist, and create action toward a change in the current situation (Eckel).

The Stories of Us is a brilliant example of a project which promotes literacy, reflection, and action. The project began in Canada and empowered immigrants to create stories relevant to their experiences as resources for other immigrants to learn English. It is a compilation of 60 stories in 15 different languages, written by newcomers and put side-by-side with English translations (Cohen). The content stimulates reflection and engagement by providing stories relevant to immigrants' experiences.

In addition, The Stories of Us names problems, chiefly that immigrants need extensive English language skills to succeed in Canada and that English literacy programs often lack appreciation and affirmation of immigrants' first-language literacy skills. It reflects colonization, economic, and social pressures contribute to these problems. Finally, it takes action by providing an avenue for other immigrants to improve their English literacy, sharing empirical stories that affirm immigrants’ experiences, and exposing the problems that an English-dominated society creates for many people.

The stories allow newcomers “honour [their] mother tongues on par with the colonizer’s language,” while stimulating the processing and compilation of immigration and life experiences (Cohen).

Read more about Stories of Us below. Consider downloading some of the stories for a church library or gathering stories to aid in the language acquisition, affirmation, and representation of immigrants and English-learners based on their model.

¡Colorín Colorado! is a website with a wealth of information and resources on English Language Learning, including compilations of ELL resources in every U.S. state, activities and strategies for English language teaching, and lists of books relevant to children of immigrants on their English-learning journey. Hover over each of the drop down menus on their website to browse.

The Presbyterian Church's Mission to North America's website provides step-by-step guidelines for starting an ESL program in your church with linked resources for how to train volunteers, create class curriculum, and organize brochures.

Ways to Volunteer and Facilitate Language Exchange in Existing Community Programs

There are plenty of opportunities to become involved in literacy activities, especially with knowledgeable organizations which have established practices and relationships in your community and around the U.S. Minimal but important training is required.

Please refer to the following volunteer opportunities and resources available below.

References

Bytof, Xania. 2022. “Beginning English Literacy Instruction for Adult Refugees and Immigrants: An Attempt to Decolonize the Approach(Es).” MA TESOL Collection, April.  https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/ipp_collection/760 .

Chao, Xia, and Miguel Mantero. 2014. “Church-Based ESL Adult Programs: Social Mediators for Empowering ‘Family Literacy Ecology of Communities.’” Journal of Literacy Research 46 (1): 90–114.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1086296X14524588 .

Chiswick, Barry R., Yew L. Lee, and Paul W. Miller. 2004. “Parents and Children Talk: The Family Dynamics of English Language Proficiency.” SSRN Scholarly Paper. Rochester, NY.  https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.571051 .

Cohen, Daniela. 2022. “New Collection of Stories Helps Adult Newcomers Learn English in a Meaningful Way.” New Canadian Media (blog). November 15, 2022.  https://newcanadianmedia.ca/the-stories-of-us-helps-adult-newcomers-learn-english-language-in-a-meaningful-way/ .

Day, Jennifer Cheeseman, and Shin B Hyon. 2022. “How Does Ability To Speak English Affect Earnings?” Census.Gov. 2022.  https://www.census.gov/library/working-papers/2005/demo/2005-Day-Shin.html .

Eckel, Todd. 2013. “Engaging the Lived Realities of Adult Immigrant English Language Learners: A Case Study of Literacy for Consciousness.”  https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1233&context=etd .

Francis, Grace L., Shana J. Haines, and Sarah A. Nagro. 2017. “Developing Relationships With Immigrant Families: Learning by Asking the Right Questions.” Teaching Exceptional Children 50 (2): 95–105.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059917720778 .

Gelatt, Julia, Joshua Rodriguez, and Valerie Lecarte. 2022. “A Profile of Low-Income Immigrants in the United States.” Migrationpolicy.Org. November 15, 2022.  https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/low-income-immigrants .

Genesee, Fred, Kathryn Lindholm-Leary, William Saunders, and Donna Christian. 2005. “English Language Learners in U.S. Schools: An Overview of Research Findings.” Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR) 10 (4): 363–85.  https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327671espr1004_2 .

Harvey, Morgan, and David Brazier. 2022. “E-Government Information Search by English-as-a Second Language Speakers: The Effects of Language Proficiency and Document Reading Level.” Information Processing & Management 59 (4): 102985.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2022.102985 .

“HD Wallpaper: People Communicating - Speech Bubbles, Abstract, Adult, Background | Wallpaper Flare.” n.d. Accessed April 13, 2023.  https://www.wallpaperflare.com/people-communicating-speech-bubbles-abstract-adult-background-wallpaper-aenhv .

Jiménez, Robert T., and Brian C. Rose. 2010. “Knowing How to Know: Building Meaningful Relationships Through Instruction That Meets the Needs of Students Learning English.” Journal of Teacher Education 61 (5): 403–12.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487110375805 .

“Literacy - What Is Literacy?” n.d. Accessed April 6, 2023.  https://education.alberta.ca/literacy-and-numeracy/literacy/everyone/what-is-literacy/ .

Modestino, Alicia Sasser, Laurie Dopkins, and Claudia Santelices. 2019. “The ROI of ESOL: The Economic and Social Return on Investment for ESOL Programs in Greater Boston. Understanding Boston.” Boston Foundation. Boston Foundation.  https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED606436 .

Pandey, Mamata, R. Geoffrey Maina, Jonathan Amoyaw, Yiyan Li, Rejina Kamrul, C. Rocha Michaels, and Razawa Maroof. 2021. “Impacts of English Language Proficiency on Healthcare Access, Use, and Outcomes among Immigrants: A Qualitative Study.” BMC Health Services Research 21 (1): 741.  https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06750-4 .

Skinner, Curtis, Vanessa Wight, Yumiko Aratani, Janice L. Cooper, and Kalyani Thampi. 2010. “English Language Proficiency, Family Economic Security, and Child Development.”  https://doi.org/10.7916/D8GT5W3N .

Taylor-Leech, Kerry, and Lynda Yates. 2012. “Strategies for Building Social Connection through English: Challenges for Immigrants and Implications for Teaching English as a Second Language.” Australian Review of Applied Linguistics 35 (2): 138–55.  https://doi.org/10.1075/aral.35.2.01tay .