The Cost of Coal to Human Health

Wildsight

What are the impacts coal mining has to community health?

From Appalachia to India, research has uncovered the potential harms open-pit coal mining has on the environment and human health. These impacts range from reduced air quality and reduced water quality to concerns with fish consumption from highly polluted water bodies. From a public health perspective, open-pit coal mining has the potential to increase the prevalence of respiratory illness, cancer, cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, poor birth outcomes, mental health problems, and mortality, while the environmental impacts that lead to these poor health outcomes originate from reductions in air, soil, and water quality, increases in fine air particulate and ambient silica, exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and cleaning chemicals [1].

Research conducted in Appalachian communities nearby mountaintop removal coal mines, reminiscent of coal mines in the Elk Valley, showed that community residents experienced significantly higher rates of morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, respiratory disease, dental disease, and cancer compared to communities without coal mining operations (reviewed in [1]). These stark contrasts remained even after controlling for smoking, obesity, poverty, education, occupational exposure, and other potential contributors to poor community health outcomes (reviewed in [1]).

In other places around the world like China, India, Turkey, and Brazil, open-pit coal mining has been linked to neural tube birth defects and elevated soil pollution, higher rates of health problems, and elevated levels of trace elements in children’s urine samples. Although the direct causal link between coal mine pollution and poor community health outcomes is not fully understood, evidence from studies around the world shows the risk open-pit coal mines pose to local communities (reviewed in [1]).

Back in Appalachia, the cost of coal mining-associated premature mortality cost $18 billion per year above the economic benefits, both direct and indirect, of the coal mining industry [2].  For British Columbia and Canada, this means policymakers need to seriously consider if mining revenue outweighs the cost of health impacts to a community. Unfortunately for Canadians, little research has been done on the community health impacts open-pit coal mining has in Canada – leaving us to only speculate on their potential harms.

Further readings on the community health effects from coal mining in Appalachia can be found in references [17-24].

A comparison between the incidence rate of chronic diseases in the Fernie Local Health Area (FLHA) (Fernie, Sparwood, Elkford) compared to the BC average. Incidence rates of Asthma, COPD, Diabetes, Heart Failure, and High Blood Pressure are all higher in the FLHA. Unfortunately, more detailed health data is not available for communities like Sparwood which are under 3.5 km away from open-pit coal mining operations.

What are the risks in your community that could lead to poor health outcomes?

Air Quality

Health Canada estimates that approximately 15,300 premature deaths per year are due to air pollution in Canada, equating to an approximate total economic cost of $120 billion per year [3]. Sources for this air pollution include emissions from factories, dust, car exhaust, and forest fire smoke [4], with British Columbia, Alberta, Quebec, and Ontario having considerably worse air quality than other regions in Canada. The World Health Organization considers air pollution to represent one of the largest environmental risks to human health [5].

Air pollution can include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone, but the worst is fine particulate matter below 2.5 micrometers. These particles are about 20 to 28 times smaller than human hair. The World Health Organization considers fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) to be the most harmful air pollutant due to its ability to penetrate deep into lung tissue. The US EPA found that exposure to fine particulate matter leads to early death, increased cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, cancers, and other serious health outcomes.

A study conducted on air pollution and lung cancer incidence rates in Europe found that for a 10 ug/m 3  increase in PM 10  your risk for lung cancer rose by 22%, and for a 5 ug/m 3  increase in PM 2.5 , this risk rose by 18%. (Hazard scores of 1.22 and 1.18, respectively; [6]). The main takeaway from this study was that ambient air pollution below recommended limits still resulted in an increased prevalence of lung cancer [6].

Reductions in air quality can occur during mining operations when particulate matter is created during blasting, coal processing, and wind erosion of storage piles [7]. Common contaminants include particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. Recently, studies examining air pollution and atmospheric particulate matter have shifted to begin incorporating ultrafine particles into their analysis. Ultrafine particles have a diameter of less than 0.1 micrometers, and due to difficulties in measuring their concentration, have typically been excluded from health studies. Ultrafine particles are likely more harmful than fine particulates due to their ability to efficiently penetrate deep into lung tissue [8].

How does this all relate to coal mines? Research examining the size distribution of particulate matter from coal mines in West Virginia found that there was a statistically significant increase in PM 10  and an elevated number of ultrafine particles as compared to non-coal mining regions. The chemical constituents of the particles and the increased number of ultrafine particles were the most likely explanation for poorer health outcomes in coal mine regions although the source for these particles could not be identified [9]. The most significant conclusion we can draw from this research is that health studies need to be conducted on the effects of coal mining on communities in Canada.

"It must be noted that multiple risk factors are involved in the development or worsening of adverse health effects. While air pollution can contribute to increased risk of population health impacts, this does not necessarily imply that air pollution is the sole cause. Exposure to air pollution is a contributing risk factor to the development of adverse health effects [3]".

Water Quality

Making a connection between poor water quality and poor health outcomes is a much more understudied area and one that is also much more complicated. Selenium has both beneficial and toxic effects [10]. Balancing these potential effects will be crucial to ensure our communities remain healthy.

Both acute outcomes, as well as long-term health impacts from consuming chronic low levels of selenium and other mining effluents, need to be studied in Canada. Pollutants found in the Elk Valley include selenium, nitrates, sulphates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and in rare cases, nickel. Health Canada sets the maximum allowable concentration for selenium in drinking water sources to 50 ug/L, while the province of BC sets the maximum allowable concentration to 10 ug/L. Selenium concentrations near the town of Sparwood now frequently exceeded British Columbia's guidelines. The newly proposed Coal Mining Effluent Regulations would permit mines in the Elk Valley to pollute rivers with selenium up to 50 ug/L, 5 times the limit recommended by the province. More concerning, however, is the occurrence of selenium concentrations well above these guidelines existing in the environment. Near the Elkview operations, groundwater seeps entering river systems can reach between 128 - 623 ug/L, up to 12 times Health Canada's maximum allowable concentration for selenium in drinking water sources and 62 times British Columbia's maximum allowable concentration for selenium in drinking water sources [11].

Federal and provincial water quality guidelines. Selenium concentrations downstream of mines in the Elk Valley commonly exceed both Health Canada's [12] and BC's guidelines [13].

High selenium intake can lead to chronic selenosis, causing hair loss, tooth decay, weakened nails, and nervous system disturbances. As per Health Canada, little information is known on the toxicity of selenium from drinking water [10].

Fish Consumption

Little is known about the risk consuming fish with high concentrations of selenium poses to human health, especially in combination with other pollutants downstream of coal mines. In the investigation that led to the 2021 conviction of Teck Coal Limited under the Fisheries Act, expert opinion pointed out the need for consumption advisors for high consumers of fish in the Elk Valley. Consumption advisories for high consumers should have begun in 1995 for the Upper Fording River, 2001 for the Lower Fording River, 2012 for the Elk River from the confluence of the Fording River to Sparwood, and in 2021 for the Elk River from Sparwood to Elko [14] (Table 6-2 in Krahn 2017 states that estimates for all reaches are worst-case scenarios). The map below demonstrates where and when these advisories should have begun.

The when and where fish consumption advisories should have begun for high consumers in the Elk Valley. Upper Fording River in red, Lower Fording River in orange, Elk River from the confluence of the Fording River to Sparwood in yellow, and the Elk River from Sparwood to Elko in purple [14].

Data found in the 2017-2019 Regional Aquatic Effects Monitoring Program Report provides additional support for the recommendations found in the Environment and Climate Change Canada investigation [15]. In all of the management units monitored downstream of the Elk Valley coal mines, at least some of the population had selenium concentrations in Westslope Cutthroat Trout or Mountain Whitefish that exceeded the health-based screening value for high fish consumption set by the Province [13]. Health Canada remarks that there is a potential for harm to human health for subsistence fishers consuming fish caught near point sources of selenium like coal mines [16].

Westslope Cutthroat Trout (blue) and Mountain Whitefish (black) muscle selenium concentrations for different management units within the Elk Valley. Management units with fish selenium concentrations above the red-dashed line may require detailed monitoring to protect human health for high consumers of fish. Management units above the yellow-dashed line may require detailed monitoring to protect human health for moderate consumers of fish. Date from [11]. Screening values from [13].

Map of management units in the Elk River Watershed with data of Westslope Cutthroat Trout and Mountain Whitefish muscle selenium concentrations. The average muscle selenium concentration and maximum muscle selenium concentration for each management unit are presented in a dialog box when selected. Active coal mines and mines in closing and reclamation are in grey. The selenium health-based screening value for high consumers of fish is 7.3 (ug/g dw) and 14.5 (ug/g dw) for moderate consumers. Date from [11]. Screening values from [13].

Summary

Air and water pollutants can contribute to poor community health outcomes in highly industrialized areas. Although fine and ultrafine particulate matter is the most significant contributor to poor health outcomes in communities located near open-pit coal mines, other sources can also have serious health impacts if not closely monitored and reduced. If we want our communities to be healthy and happy, we need to work hard to reduce airborne pollutants and ensure access to clean drinking water. Changes need to be made to Part II of the  proposed Coal Mining Effluent Regulations  that ensure the protection of drinking water sources and the protection of aquatic life in the Elk Valley.

In Appalachia, a dose-response to increased coal mining and poor community health outcomes was observed ( TED Talk ). Here in the Elk Valley, these same conclusions cannot be made since we lack the data and research studies needed to validate these findings. Health Canada and the province of British Columbia need to begin researching the health impacts open-pit coal mining has on communities in the Elk Valley.

This is the second installment in a five-part series examining the risks and impacts of coal mining within the Elk Valley and Canada. Please join us as we dive into detail on the cost coal mining has had on the environment, human health, and climate change, before presenting solutions to the current crisis.

References

  1. Hendryx M, Zullig KJ, Luo J. 2020. Impacts of coal use on health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 41:397-415
  2. Hendryx M, Ahern MM. Mortality in Appalachian coal mining regions: the value of statistical life lost. Public Health Rep. 2009;124(4):541-550. doi:10.1177/003335490912400411
  3.  https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/2021-health-effects-indoor-air-pollution.html   
  4. Korsiak J, Pinault L, Christidis T, Burnett RT, Abrahamowicz M, Weichenthal S. 2022. Long-term exposure to wildfires and cancer incidence in Canada: a population-based observational cohort study. The Lancet Planetary Health. 2022 May; 6(5):400-409. Doi:  https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00067-5 
  5.  WHO. 2016.    Ambient air pollution: a global assessment of exposure and burden of disease  . Geneva. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health 
  6. Raaschou-Nielsen O, Andersen ZJ, Beelen R, Samoli E, Stafoggia M, Weinmayr G, Hoffmann B, Fischer P, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Brunekreef B, Xun WW, Katsouyanni K, Dimakopoulou K, Sommar J, Forsberg B, Modig L, Oudin A, Oftedal B, Schwarze PE, Nafstad P, De Faire U, Pedersen NL, Ostenson CG, Fratiglioni L, Penell J, Korek M, Pershagen G, Eriksen KT, Sørensen M, Tjønneland A, Ellermann T, Eeftens M, Peeters PH, Meliefste K, Wang M, Bueno-de-Mesquita B, Key TJ, de Hoogh K, Concin H, Nagel G, Vilier A, Grioni S, Krogh V, Tsai MY, Ricceri F, Sacerdote C, Galassi C, Migliore E, Ranzi A, Cesaroni G, Badaloni C, Forastiere F, Tamayo I, Amiano P, Dorronsoro M, Trichopoulou A, Bamia C, Vineis P, Hoek G. Air pollution and lung cancer incidence in 17 European cohorts: prospective analyses from the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE). Lancet Oncol. 2013 Aug;14(9):813-22. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70279-1. Epub 2013 Jul 10. PMID: 23849838.
  7. Ghose MK, Majee SR. Characteristics of hazardous airborne dust around an Indian surface coal mining area. Environ Monit Assess. 2007;130(1-3):17-25. doi:10.1007/s10661-006-9448-6
  8. Donaldson K, Stone V, Clouter A. 2001. Ultrafine particlesOccupational and Environmental Medicine 2001;58:211-216.
  9. Kurth, L., McCawley, M., Hendryx, M. et al. Atmospheric particulate matter size distribution and concentration in West Virginia coal mining and non-mining areas. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 24, 405–411 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2014.2
  10. Health Canada (2014). Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document — Selenium. Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. (Catalogue No H144-13/4-2013E-PDF).
  11.  https://www.teck.com/media/03_RGMP_SSGMP_2020_Vol_II_w_Cover_Page.pdf ; EV_SEEP_ERICKSON2 Se: 128 - 623 ug/L; EV_RCgw Se: 233 - 264 ug/L; EV_EC1 Se: 128 - 168 ug/L.
  12.   https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/environmental-workplace-health/reports-publications/water-quality/guidelines-canadian-drinking-water-quality-summary-table.html  
  13.   https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/air-land-water/water/waterquality/water-quality-guidelines/approved-wqgs/bc_moe_se_wqg.pdf  
  14. Fish Consumption Advisories Dr. Peter Krahn; Appendix C. Page 283-285. in Teck Coal Limited Direction and Appendices File: 8000-2017-01-22-391610 (G) 5008-2010-06- 16-993 (N).
  15.  https://www.teck.com/media/10_2017-2019_RAEMP_Monitoring_Report_w_Cover_Page_compressed.pdf  
  16. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/evaluating-existing-substances/screening-assessment-selenium.html#toc63
  17. Aneja VP, Isherwood A, Morgan P. 2012. Characterization of particulate matter (PM10) related to surface coal mining operations in Appalachia. Atmos. Environ. 54:496–501
  18. Bernhardt ES, Palmer MA. 2011. The environmental costs of mountaintop mining valley fill operations for aquatic ecosystems of the Central Appalachians. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1223:39–57
  19. Christian WJ,Huang B, Rinehart J, Hopenhayn C. 2011. Exploring geographic variation in lung cancer incidence in Kentucky using a spatial scan statistic: elevated risk in the Appalachian coal-mining region. Public Health Rep. 126:789–96
  20. Hendryx M, Higginbotham H, Ewald B, Connor LH. 2019. Air quality in association with rural coal mining and combustion in New SouthWales Australia. J. Rural Health 35:518–27
  21. Hendryx M, Luo J. 2015. An examination of the effects of mountaintop removal coal mining on respiratory symptoms and COPD using propensity scores. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 25:265–76
  22. Lindberg TT, Bernhardt ES, Bier R, Helton AM,Merola RB, et al. 2011. Cumulative impacts of mountaintop mining on an Appalachian watershed. PNAS 108:20929–34
  23. Palmer MA, Bernhardt ES, SchlesingerWH, Eshleman KN, Foufoula-Georgiou E, et al. 2010. Mountaintop mining consequences. Science 327:148–49
  24. Zullig KJ, Hendryx M. 2011. Health-related quality of life among central Appalachian residents in mountaintop mining counties. Am. J. Public Health 101:848–53

Wildsight works in the Columbia Basin on the unceded lands of the Ktunaxa, Secwépemc, Sinixt, Syilx Okanagan and Lheidli T'enneh. We acknowledge these Indigenous Nations and honour their past, present and future stewardship of these lands and waters.

Fernie Local Health Area. Image from  https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/data/geographic/land-use/administrative-boundaries/health-boundaries/111_fernie.pdf  under  Open Government Licence - British Columbia .

A comparison between the incidence rate of chronic diseases in the Fernie Local Health Area (FLHA) (Fernie, Sparwood, Elkford) compared to the BC average. Incidence rates of Asthma, COPD, Diabetes, Heart Failure, and High Blood Pressure are all higher in the FLHA. Unfortunately, more detailed health data is not available for communities like Sparwood which are under 3.5 km away from open-pit coal mining operations.

Image from US EPA ( https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics#effects) 

Federal and provincial water quality guidelines. Selenium concentrations downstream of mines in the Elk Valley commonly exceed both Health Canada's [12] and BC's guidelines [13].

The when and where fish consumption advisories should have begun for high consumers in the Elk Valley. Upper Fording River in red, Lower Fording River in orange, Elk River from the confluence of the Fording River to Sparwood in yellow, and the Elk River from Sparwood to Elko in purple [14].

Westslope Cutthroat Trout (blue) and Mountain Whitefish (black) muscle selenium concentrations for different management units within the Elk Valley. Management units with fish selenium concentrations above the red-dashed line may require detailed monitoring to protect human health for high consumers of fish. Management units above the yellow-dashed line may require detailed monitoring to protect human health for moderate consumers of fish. Date from [11]. Screening values from [13].