Mapping the Making of Music

The three most popular instruments of ancient Greece were the  aulos , the  lyre , and the  kithara . The  aulos  was an  aerophone  that consisted of two pipes. They were presumably played simultaneously. The  lyre  was a  chordophone , a string instrument. Its tortoiseshell soundbox is quite recognisable. The third instrument, the  kithara , was also played by plucking and strumming strings. It is slightly larger than the  lyre  and has a wooden soundbox.

These instruments were found in processions and musical contests, part of the education of young Athenians, used for rhythm on sea voyages, and so forth ( Landels 3-7 ;  Mathiesen, 247 ;  West, 19-30 ). All in all, music was prevalent in daily life, likely resulting in the production of a steady number of  auloi ,  lyres , and  kitharai .

In ancient Greece, making  auloi  was usually done by the  aulopoios , while the  luropoios  would focus on making  lyres  and/or  kitharai . They were likely supported by a network to acquire all the necessary materials.

To gain a better understanding of the musical instrument making world of ancient Greece, we will explore the locations where the materials were collected. Using primary texts, the mapped materials of the ancient Greek instrument production world are presented. See the specific materials per instruments below:

•  The aulos 
•  The lyre 
•  The kithara 

The overview of materials of the three instruments combined is presented below.

The results of this StoryMap are based on mentions of the materials in primary texts. Since the musical instruments remained popular for an extended period of time, all sources from the ancient Greek-speaking world containing mentions of the materials were examined. Places were located using  Pleiades .

While a significant portion of the results refers to ancient Greece, some texts date to later times. Therefore, it is possible that the ancient authors wrote the text thinking of, for example, the Roman Empire.

Moreover, since instrument-makers are hardly mentioned in these texts, the locations of the materials are oftentimes noted in general. While it is very well possible that instrument-makers obtained their material from these specific sources, the maps present only the possibility.

Reed was essential to the  aulos ,  lyre , and the  kithara . As mentioned previously, the  aulos  consisted of two pipes, both of which were played with a reed mouthpiece. Theophrastus' account of the production of  aulos  mouthpieces, tells us that the reed was harvested from deep pools of water ( Enquiry into Plants, IV. Xi. 4-9 ).  Arundo Donax  has been considered a likely candidate, although it has been attested by  Phragmites Australis . The latter is slightly more pliable, thus easier to work with ( Brown ). The two pipes were also occasionally made out of reed, although no  auloi  of this kind survive. These kind were probably especially popular during the Classical age ( Landels, 33 ).

The  lyre  and  kithara  used reed stalks to strengthen the soundbox of the instruments ( Landels, 64-65 ). In violins and guitars, similar enforcement can be found. Since the strings add tension onto the soundbox, pulling the crossbar down, stalks are needed to protect the lifespan of the instrument. Without this enforcement, the tortoiseshell of the  lyre  and the wooden soundbox of the  kithara  would soon wear out. The bridge on the soundbox might also have been made of reed ( Aristoph. Frogs 225 ).

Reed was found all over the Mediterranean area.  Aulopoioi  and  luropoioi  probably did not have to travel far to collect some reed for their instrument making pursuits. In the instances below, more precise locations of reed were mentioned.

Another base material for  aulos  pipes was wood. A surviving example of this is  the Elgin aulos , made of  sycamore wood  that grows in Mediterranean climates ( Landels, 33 ).  The Louvre aulos  was made of boxwood, which might have been imported from North Africa in antiquity ( Hagel, 131 ). Lastly, lotos or nettle-tree wood was imported from Libya to make 'lotinoi-pipes' ( Ath. 4.80 ).

The arms and crossbar of the  lyre  were also wooden. Although some  lyre  arms were made out of horns, hardwood is believed to have been more common ( Creese, 91 ). The arms of  the Elgin lyre  were sycamore, but other types such as oak-kermes or maple could also have been used ( Landels, 33 ;  Georgiou ;  Thpr. Enquiry into Plants, VII. Xi. 6 ; Bélis, 209). Most wood types that could withstand the tension from the strings suffice.

The wood type for the  kithara  might have been more carefully selected, as this instrument is almost entirely made out of wood. Unfortunately, no recognizable archaeological evidence survives of this instrument. Nevertheless, it can be assumed that the wood was hard enough to withstand the tension from the strings and light enough to allow the player to carry the instrument. It has also been suggested that more exotic or expensive wood types might have been used, which allowed players to distinguish themselves in musical contests with their instrument ( Trosch, 3-4 ).

Wood was used for many other crafts besides  aulos ,  lyre , and  kithara  making. Most notably, it is often mentioned in relation to shipbuilding. For instrument-making, much smaller quantities are needed of course. In this manner,  aulopoioi  and  luropoioi  might have been able to benefit from the already imported timber. Alternatively, they might have turned to the woody hillsides found in the Mediterranean. Mules could have carried the wood back into the city ( Strab. 14.2 ;  Dem. 42 7 ).

Tortoiseshells were only used for the  lyre  as the soundbox. The tortoiseshell is such a recognizable feature that the instrument was occasionally referred to as  chelus , tortoise in Greek. Currently, three tortoise species are easily accessible in Greece, the testudo marginata, t. graeca, and t. hermanni. The t. marginata is the largest, being able to reach up to 20 to 30 cm in length and 10 to 13 cm in depth ( Mathiesen, 238 ). Moreover, it is the lightest relatively compared to the other two species (Willemsen & Hailey, 111).

If any similar tortoises roamed around in ancient Greece, their shells could be collected relatively easily. In some cases, perhaps in less tortoise-rich areas, shells might have been imported.

A more durable material for  aulos  pipes is ivory. The  Pompeian auloi  are a good example of preserved pipes. Since ivory was imported, it was more expensive to use for instrument-making ( Acton, 182 ).

Elephants were hunted in both Africa and India. In several mentions, they are caught to be used in wars. If the elephants were slain in battle, ivory would show up in the spoils of war. Sometimes, elephants were hunted locally for their meat ( Strab. 16.4 ). Perhaps their tusks were sold afterwards.

Like ivory, bone  auloi  are quite durable, resulting in a more elaborate archaeological record. Hence, we know that sheep bones were used as shown by the  Copenhagen aulos  ( West, 98 ). Deer bone was also commonly used for the pipes.  The Eelde aulos  is an example of this (Pers. comm. D. Verel 3/1/2020). Literary sources suggest that deer bones might have been most popular with the possibility of the introduction of donkey bones in later times ( Plut. Non Posse 26 ;  Ath. 4.80 ;  Plut. Septem. 150e-f ).

Regardless, sheep, deer, and donkey bones were all rather accessible to the ancient Greeks ( Lane Fox, 92 ;  Barringer, 174-75 ). While it is possible that  aulopoioi  ventured out to the woodlands to hunt down a deer for the next instrument, this would have been a rather inefficient method. Only the metatarsus bone of the hind leg was used since the  auloi  required cylindrical boring (Pers. comm. D. Verel 3/1/2020). Moreover, since  auloi  are generally longer than the average metatarsus length, several bones were required for one pipe. The reconstructed  Eelde aulos  uses four bones per pipe, for instance.

All in all, it is unlikely that the  aulopoios  killed several animals for one instrument. Such an inefficient approach can be considered illogical long term. Instead, the instrument-maker probably received or bought the metatarsus bones wherever available. This was probably on a local scale since all the used animal bones were accessible in the intermediate area.

In literary texts, bones are often used as a synonym for human remains. In a few other instances, they are described as part of the human body (see,  e.g. Galen ). Perhaps bones for crafts are barely mentioned because of their availability. They were, for example, thrown to the dogs, suggesting people usually had some spare bones laying around ( D. L. 6.2 ) Perhaps, the  aulopoios  had connections to the butcher, whose customers preferred cuts with little bone in it ( Ath. 6.43 ).

The  luropoios  could have used horns for several parts of the  lyre  and  kithara . In some cases, the instrument-maker chose to use horns as lyre-arms instead of wood, as suggested by the myth in which Hermes constructs the first  lyre  ( HH 4 ). It has been suggested that the first  lyres  indeed used horns as arms, later to be replaced by wood ( Landels, 65 ). Alternatively, horns might have been reintroduced to the  lyre  in an attempt for a 'vintage design' ( Creese, 91-93 ).

The  kithara  featured smaller horns as a part of the spring mechanism in the arm of the instrument as often seen  in pottery depictions  ( Georgiou ). This mechanism allowed for slight movement of the crossbar, which rested on top of the arms. Perhaps, a better vibrato could be attained from the strings through implementing the horns.

Much like the bone, only a small part of the animal was needed. Therefore, a network that could provide the  luropoios  with horns is likely once again. Horns are mentioned sparingly in the ancient texts. Perhaps they were readily available, making mentioning their location redundant.

Hide was mostly used for the  lyre , covering the tortoiseshell soundbox ( HH 4 30 ;  Georgiou ). The size of the piece of required piece of leather depended on the size of the shell. Even if the shell was relatively small, the  luropoios  likely bought his hide from a tanner ( Plat. Laws 8.849b-c ;  Strab. 3.5 ). Since leather was used for several other items including wineskins, spear cases, satchels, and shoes, tanners could specialize in their craft ( Acton, 166 & 225 ).

Tanners would wash, dehair, flesh, and treat the hide to produce good quality products. Bigger pieces of hide took several weeks of work ( Falcão & Araújo, 1-2 ). Tanners worked on the outskirts of the city due to the unpleasant smells that accompanied the craft ( Acton, 68 ;  Aristoph. Kn. 887 ;  Paus. 10.13 ).

In some cases, small strips of leather were braided with the strings and wound around the crossbar as a tuning mechanism ( Landels, 52 ). Since the leather tends to dry out, leather strips were not an ideal tuning mechanism ( Mathiesen, 242 ). Instead, wooden pegs might be preferred ( ibid. 262-63 ). The leather tuning mechanism could have been used for both the  lyre  and the  kithara .

Metal was used for all three instruments. The  aulos  could be entirely made out of metal or an alloy. For instance, the Heraklion Archaeological Museum houses  a bronze aulos . In other cases, thin rings of bronze or silver are used between pipe sections of other materials ( Landels, 34 ). Less common was to gild the entire instrument in a thin layer of silver, as done with the Pompeian auloi ( Hagel, 52-53 ).

Some  auloi  were equipped with tuning systems to control the key of the instrument. A rotatable sleeve was used for the Pompeian aulos, allowing the musician to close or open fingerholes on the instrument ( Landels, 36-37 ). The Pergamum aulos used a similar mechanism, using a shorter sleeve that can be moved up and down by means of a rod ( Hagel, 248-51 ).

Both the  lyre  and the  kithara  had tailpieces to which the lower end of the strings was attached. This part of the instrument needed to be especially sturdy due to the constant pulling tension of the strings. Therefore, metal has been put forward as a likely material ( Mathiesen, 241 ). When a tailpiece of a  lyre  was discovered in Roca, it was indeed metal. It was mostly iron, containing some traces of other metals ( Castaldo, 354 ). Additionally, nails were found close to the shell, suggesting that the tailpiece was attached using nails; these consisted of both iron and copper ( ibid. 354 ). It has been suggested that the tailpiece of the  kithara  was attached in a similar fashion, although no archaeological evidence has survived to support this claim ( Koumartzis et al. 326 ).

Several mines operated in Attica, such as the one at Laureion from which silver was extracted ( Amemiya, 30 ). When metals were not locally available, the material was imported ( Ps. Xen. Const. Ath. 2 ;  Paus. 1.21 ).

Glue was primarily used to join the wooden panels of the  kithara  together. Nevertheless, it might also have been used to glue the bridge to the soundbox of the  lyre . While glue must have been used, there is uncertainty about the type of glue. Animal glue seems to be a good contender, as it is still popular with modern instrument-makers ( Schaefer ;  Plb. 6.23 ). It is made from animal remains such as bones and hides, boiled down with water, after which it can be stored as small blocks ( Patrick Edwards, 3 ).

The  luropoios  might either have boiled down some animal remains themselves, or bought it from the  glue-boiler . Since the materials are scraps, both options are possible. Perhaps, no locations of glue-boilers are mentioned because the animal remains were very easy to obtain.

Strings were used for both the  lyre  and  kithara . In the classical period, seven seems to have been the standard number ( Landels, 65 ). However, in some cases, this number could increase to twelve; for example, in a  kithara  musical competition ( Mathiesen, 247 ). Several materials have been suggested for strings such as (sheep)gut, sinew, hemp, and flax ( Kotsanas, 18 ;  Landels, 52 ; Poll. Onomasticon 4.62). Nevertheless, all materials except gut are contested ( Mathiesen, 241-42 ). Gut was the most popular material for string making ( Landels, 57 ;  HH 4 .

Similar to bones and horns, we can probably assume that the Greeks had access to the material. Unfortunately, this cannot be derived from the available literary sources used for this StoryMap.

Pseudo Xenophon has mentioned  the following  about trade in the ancient world:

However, it is from these very things that I have my ships: timber from one place, iron from another, copper from another, flax from another, wax from another.(Ps. Xen. Const. Ath. 2)

Depending on the type of instrument  aulopoioi  or  luropoioi  intended to make, we can conclude that a similar ship journey was needed to gather the materials. Certain materials such as reed, wood, tortoiseshells, probably bones, horns, hide, metal, and probably glue could be found in Greece itself. Other materials such as exotic wood, more tortoiseshells, ivory, some hides, and more metals could be imported.

In some cases such as ivory, locations were quite clearly indicated in literary texts. Perhaps this was the case because it was a foreign product. As a general rule, it seems that the more local a product was - one might argue 'less special' - the less it was mentioned. This was especially the case for animal products such as bones, horns, and gut. Tracing the animals through literary references would likely result in chasing after travelling herdsmen. (Short-distance) transhumance culture was typical for shep and goatherds ( Cardete, 116-17 ).

For future research, a supplementary research using non-literary evidences is encouraged. The material mapping could, for instance, very much benefit from zooarchaeological research on the availability of bones, horns, and more in the area. For now, however, we should conclude that signs of an interconnected map of music production have at least been partly revealed. Much like music itself, the production of music also exceeds boundaries.

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