Miss Edith Durham

A deep dive into the archival collections of an early twentieth-century female anthropologist, war correspondent, artist, and writer.

Lavínia Cyrillo & Sophy Higgins

May 9, 2022

Introduction

Miss Mary Edith Durham (1863-1944) extensively documented her travels, primarily around the Balkans, in the early twentieth century through a variety of photographs, artwork, and in personal diaries and correspondence. She presented her ideas in books, articles, letters, and public lectures.

This exhibition uses the digitised collection of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, of which Durham was a Member of Council and Vice-President, to explore key themes that consistently arose throughout her work.

The collection symbolises the personal and active role of the anthropologist and archivist; Durham's notes and scrapbooks give us an indication of her motivations and thoughts, with some seeming random or disorganised, but making logical and purposeful sense to her, and more sense to the audience when viewed thematically.

These themes therefore enable the viewer to better understand both her work, and her subsequent legacy as arguably one of the most prominent and influential female anthropologists in history.

^{Image displayed in background: 'Tsukali', Albania, 1912. Reverse side reads 'Sunset from Marko's garden. Mt Tsukali 1912' (Durham; 300.50-14)}

Please note the following:

The use of this material is with direct permission from the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. The copyright notice for all digital files in this exhibition can be found under the 'sources' tab.

Some of the images and quotes included are of a sensitive nature, and relate to themes of war, violence, death, and burial.

Some language featured in the sources referenced is outdated. It is reminiscent of Durham's privilege and time of writing.

The geographical place names used in this exhibition refer to the modern day territories.

We recommend viewing this exhibition on a tablet, laptop, or desktop.

^{Image displayed in background: 'In Marko's garden, Scutari', Albania, May 1910 (Durham; 300.50-15)}

^{"I give these books of drawings, photographs and notes to the Royal Anthropological Institute with the hope that, in the future, they may be of interest as a record of the very primitive conditions in East Europe at the beginning of the 20th century."}

--- Signed M.E. Durham, February 1940 (Durham; MS 41/1)

^{Image displayed in background: 'The sheep woman', Albania, 1912 (Durham; 300.50-09)}

War & Conflict

_{The entirety of Miss Durham's travels through the Balkans was influenced by conflict in some form. When the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) was assassinated in Sarajevo and the First World War broke out, the Balkans had already endured years of internal destructive warfare, of which Durham was an active witness.}

How did this influence Miss Durham's writing leading up to the eve of the First World War?

The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 saw an unprecendented wave of nationalism and liberation movements, coupled with strong political disputes. Throughout the war against the Ottoman Empire, the Albanian territory became an arena for competition among its neighbours.

Thus, the Albanian declaration of independence in November 1912 epitomised the country's call for self-determination and autonomy in international affairs. It also symbolised Albania's emancipation from the legacy of an Ottoman province, and its foray into statehood.

^{"For folk in England then had no idea what war really meant. Nor have they even now realised that areas of the Balkans were already completely devastated when that fatal fourth of August dawned. It found me, all unaware of what was happening in Europe, struggling to aid and feed some seventy thousand Albanian refugees in Valena..."}

--- True Tales from the Balkans (MS 45/9)

During the years preceding the First World War, Durham was committed to providing humanitarian aid and a platform in the West to communicate the dire situation in the Balkans, with her hope being to gather supper for the region. She was engaged in Albanian hospitals, cared for refugees and organised food and medical supplies, all whilst frequently contributing to London-based newspapers and journals, such as The Near East, The Saturday Review, and The Contemporary Review.

The Independence of Albania was proclaimed by Ismail Kemal on 28th November 1912. The image displayed on the right shows 'Independence House, Valona 1913' (Durham; 400_013127), with the house appearing again in the below image.

'House at Valona where Albanian independence was proclaimed on Nov. 28 1912 & where the first government used to meet', Albania *(Durham; 400_035696)*

This interest in Albanian independence would prove a constant in Durham's life. She later wrote in 1940 that this was "an independence brutally shattered by Mussolini on Good Friday 1939 without the slighest justification. But as the Albanians survived Byzantium and survived the mediaeval empire of the Serbs and rose again when the Turkish Empire fell, [they] may rise again." (Albania: tribes, costumes, buildings, etc. Durham; MS 41/3)

Up until the First World War, Western interpretations of the Balkan Wars had primarily been shaped by the Carnegie Report of 1914, which sought to explain the causes and intricacies of the conflict. Critics of the document, however, point to the fact that, as a result of a commission composed of predominantly Western scholars, the Report perceived the Balkan situation through a Western lense, hence was orientalist by definition.

^{"While all Europe was watching the approach of the Great War, I was crawling along the side of an Albanian mountain spying out the exposition of the greek army near Tapelenin and only on returning to Valena heard the fatal news of Russia's mobilisation."}

--- True Tales from the Balkans (MS 45/9)

As Durham aptly concluded, "ignorance is at the feet of most international troubles and it is only by mutual understanding that we can ever hope to establish peace among the peoples." (True Tales from the Balkans, Durham; MS 45/9). Thus, for her, up to the outbreak of the First World War, European nations (including England) remained oblivious to the destruction in the Balkans, and crucially in Albania, a country for which Durham nurtured great affection and respect.

^{Image displayed on right: 'Montenegrin guns en route to Scutari', Albania, 1912 (Durham; 400_013145)}

Officers of the 5th Battalion, Montenegro, 1903 *(Durham; 400_013318)*

Army assembly on War Alarm, Montenegro, 1905 *(Durham; 400_013309)*

A postcard of the leading Montenegrin officers, 1907 (*Durham; 400_002181*)

Scene from the Balkan War, Montenegro, 1912 *(Durham; 400_013290)*

'Montenegrin officers and guns', Montenegro, 1912 *(Durham; 400_013291)*

'Shipchanik fortress, just after taken by Montenegrins in Oct. 1912', Montenegro, 1912 *(Durham; 400_013292)*

'Montenegrin army leaving Scutari as Admirals entered', Albania, 1913 *(Durham; 400_013274)*

'Montenegrin army retiring over the Bojana bridge as the Admirals rowed beneath it', Albania *(Durham; 400_035723)*

^{Image displayed on right: 'Ceta in line at Zabljack Durmitor, War Alarm', Montenegro, 1905 (Durham; 400_013303)}

Culture & Religion

_{The Durham collection demonstrates that Miss Durham did not merely account for local customs and traditions, but rather she sought to bear witness to the realities of them.}

What was Miss Durham's motivation for documenting her travels?

Up until the outbreak of the First World War, international interest in the Balkans had been limited, especially in the West. The Balkan Wars, the territorial disputes, and the Albanian declaration of independence received relatively little attention from European powers.

It was Durham's objective to publicise the cause of the Balkans, crucially Albania. The latter was epitomised by her correspondence with Sir Edward Grey, who presided over the London Conference (1912), advocating for matters of Albanian independence and autonomy, and by her public renouncement of the Gold Medal given to her by King Nikola of Montenegro. The former, however, was seen through the way in which she documented the lives of the Balkan peoples.

^{"The object of all these wandering was the study of life as lived by the people [in the Balkans], the primitive old-world life - its customs and beliefs."}

--- True Tales from the Balkans (Durham; MS 45/9)

Durham's direct involvement with the local communities, together with her accounts and detailed remarks, have rendered her a paragon of anthropology, history, and even the arts. It was her belief that only a direct engagement with local populations could lead to an accurate study of Balkan nations.

^{Image displayed on left: 'Bagpipe man', Serbia, 1902 (Durham; 400_013358)}

Durham participated in festivals and closely watched communities, documenting her findings through paintings, sketches, and narratives. These, for her, not only contributed to a more accurate description of the region and its customs, but also helped to preserve traditions that were dependent on the orality of folklore.

^{"To learn what [the peasant] was really like, I lived his life, watched his doings, shared his food and took part in his joys and sorrows, feasts and funerals, in more than one Balkan land."}

--- True Tales from the Balkans (MS 45/9)

In True Tales from the Balkans (Durham; MS 45/9), she further wrote that "the rising generation it was true, was beginning to read and their choice of literature was alas not to be commended. But the older people, their minds as yet undebauched by print, were mines of strange tales and stranger lore." It was her active engagement that strengthened her ability to advocate, in Britain, for the basic needs of these communities.

^{Image displayed on left: 'Serbs of Prizren district dancing Kolo', Serbia, 1908 (Durham; 400_013373)}

'Cattle fair', Serbia, 1902 *(Durham; 400_013343)*

'Market', Albania, 1904 *(Durham; 400_013109)*

Krsto playing the gusle with his family outside their house, Montenegro, 1905 *(Durham; 400_013253)*

'Drying tobacco', Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1906 *(Durham; 400_013370)*

'Dancing Montenegrin kolo', Montenegro, 1907 *(Durham; 400_013259)*

'Prizreni bazar', Albania, 1908 *(Durham; 400_013225)*

^{Image displayed on left: 'Boat and fishing nets, Lake Ochrida', Macedonia, 1904 (Durham; 400_013345)}

Miss Durham also documented various religious and superstitious customs, including birth, marriage, prayer, and burial. Her descriptions of these practices indicated two things; firstly, that religion was a fundamental part of daily life that dictated most of it, rather than acting merely as an accompanying entity; and secondly, that the religious landscape of the Balkans was complicated by historical and ever-expanding tensions between Christian and Muslim tribes.

The image on the right shows an example of how the two intertwined rather complexly. In the village of Selchan Shpata, each man had a Muslim and a Christian name, and could use either to claim exemptions as "when called to serve in the Turkish army they pleaded that they were [Christians] & exempt. When called on to pay [Christian] poll tax, they said they were Moslems". Here we see that religious, or tribal, identity could readily be complicated and manipulated by matters of politics and finances.

'The Patriarchia', Serbia, 1903 *(Durham; 400_013384)*

Grave stone with carving of Kolo dance, Montenegro, 1905 *(Durham; 400_013336)*

'Igumon of Kosijerevo', Montenegro, 1905 *(Durham; 400_013278)*

Popa (Montenegrin priest) in vestments, Montenegro, 1905 *(Durham; 400_013251)*

'Herzegovina grave with rag offerings', Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1906 *(Durham; 400_013363)*

Mosque in the snow, Montenegro, 1907 *(Durham; 400_013325)*

'Catholic church', Albania, 1908 *(Durham; 400_013201)*

'Modern Montenegrin grave', Montenegro, 1908 *(Durham; 400_013294)*

Tomb of Sultan Murad *(Durham; 400_013380)*

^{Image displayed on right: scrapbook page in Albania: tribes, costumes, buildings, etc., 1940 (Durham; MS 41/3, images 400_002283 to 400_002286)}

Gender & Tradition

_{It is also worth exploring the role of gender, both in terms of Durham's position as a successful woman navigating an early-twentieth century patriarchal society, as well as an active narrator of other women and the unfamiliar customs that they were bound by.}

How did Miss Durham -- pictured right in attire typical of a middle-class English woman in the early twentieth century -- opt to engage with, and write about, the women that she encountered? And, in turn, how did these women choose to receive Miss Durham?

'Montenegrin Women', Montenegro, 1900 *(Durham; 400_013262)*

'Woman selling firewood', Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1900 *(Durham; 400_013366)*

'Moslem Peasant', Albania, 1904 *(Durham; 400_013102)*

'Christian Peasant', Albania, 1904 *(Durham; 400_013104)*

'Post Master's Wife and others', Montenegro, 1905 *(Durham; 400_013301)*

'Christian peasant girls', Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1906 *(Durham; 400_013377)*

'Woman of Merturi married into Nikaj tribe, Spinning', Albania, 1908 *(Durham; 400_013221)*

'Woman of Maltsia e madhe district showing heavy belt worn by married women', Albania, 1908 *(Durham; 400_013216)*

'Serb maiden with shaven head until engaged', Serbia, 1908 *(Durham; 400_013375)*

_{Image displayed on right: 'M.E. Durham [pictured with umbrella] and tribesmen' in 1913, photographed by Mr McRury (Durham; 400_013135)}

Much of Miss Durham's work focused on documenting the custom of the women that she saw, and both the spoken and unspoken rules that they conformed to. There appeared, however, a physical and symbolic separation between Durham -- who was guided through her travels exclusively by men -- and these women.

In Blood is thicker than Water (Durham; MS 45/12), she noted that "in the eyes of the unsophiscticated tribeswoman I ranked as a male--as a "junak" (warrior)." In High Albania and its Customs in 1908, she further wrote that "sometimes they [men] would not even let a woman speak to me. They are tremendous talkers, and found a foreign female far too amusing to be wasted on their women." (p.461)

Interestingly, in High Albania and its Customs in 1908, Durham detailed the way in which Albanian women could potentially "escape the husband to whom she [had] been sold" (p.460). This was through swearing virginity, after which these women would gain certain rights that only men had, such as dressing similarly (as the woman featured left did), carrying arms, eating with men, and exchanging tobacco.

^{Image displayed on left: 'Albanian virgin' aged 47, Albania, 1908 (Durham; 400_013169)}

Despite this, these 'virgin' women did not have the same rights to inheriting land, as this still bypassed them in favour of a male heir. Durham did note, however, that this male heir "must pay her yearly out of the estate 300 okas (about 650 lbs.) of maize, 18 okas of rakia, and 30 okas of wine. Should he fail to do so she can enforce payment by an appeal to the Council of Elders." (High Albania and its Customs in 1908, p.460).

This seemed a common enough phenomenon amongst the localised Albanian tribes that Durham spent time with, though she noted also that "this practice of swearing virginity to avoid marriage with a man disliked prevails, I am told, among the Moslem as well as the Christian tribes. But I met no examples. I heard of one who had served in the Turkish army" (High Albania and its Customs in 1908, p.460).

^{"They also seemed to have an idea that as I am unmarried I belonged to the sworn-virgin class and was fit to be associated with."}

--- Durham, High Albania and its Customs in 1908 (p.461)

The practice of sworn virgins then shows two things: firstly, that there was in fact some options for social mobility amongst unmarried Albanian women, but that these were strictly guided, and were still subject to limitations set by men for their own benefit; and secondly, that this presumed identity enabled Miss Durham to gain further respect, beyond the aforementioned notoriety she already received as a foreign female traveller.

^{Image displayed on left: Albanian virgin with the rights of a man, Albania, 1908 (Durham; 400_013168)}

By comparison, this 'Blood is thicker than Water' manuscript excerpt featured left tells the story of a married peasant woman, Iké, whose daily life was dictated by the men around her. It shows not only the rigidity of patriarchal custom, but also provides glimpses into Durham's evident compassion for the women bound by such rigidity.

Firstly, Durham referenced the burden of women -- a common theme in her writing -- and their work, juxtaposed by a man "no doubt lounging in the shade of the walnut tree smoking a cigarette and cursing Iké for being so slow".

^{"Woman is the beast of burden in Montenegro and I was too much accustomed to the sight to take much notice."}

--- Blood is thicker than Water (Durham; MS 45/12)

We then see Durham seemingly wishing to both prove herself as an ally to Iké, and to theoretically subvert the rules by which Iké lived; she attemped to initially change Iké's views by appealing to familiar gender roles of the "great strong man", before then agreeing to keep the secret of her fellow woman, despite the aforementioned distance between them. Durham did recognise, however, that "remonstrance... would be useless", particularly given that Iké operated in a climate in which "Krsto more than once had beaten [Iké] for her disobedience".

^{Image displayed on left: excerpt from the manuscript 'Blood is thicker than Water' (Durham; MS 45/12)}

Interestingly, Durham later spoke about Iké in a lecture given at the Horniman Museum on 12th February 1927, entitled 'Some old Montenegrin customs', an excerpt of which is featured on the left. This indicates that Durham's evident empathy for Iké was sustained, and that she did indeed remember the relationships that she cultivated with the peasant women that she met, despite their obvious differences.

^{"In fact even in my time I was often assured that perhaps it might not be necessary to beat wives in England, but owing to the innate wickedness of Montenegrin women, beating was the only way to male them work... The life of a peasant woman in those parts is one of incessant and most severe toil."}

--- 'Some old Montenegrin customs', 1927 (Durham; MS 44/4)

In this case, Durham stated that "I fear that one reason why poor Iké, Krsto's wife was so touchingly devoted to me was because when I was living in the hut Krsto dared not beat her." Here we see the juxtaposition that defined Durham's travels; there existed a dichotomy between Durham's privilege as an English woman who appeared to foster respect from the men that guided her, and her role as a fellow woman who witnessed and navigated archaic gender roles, but with little ability to influence real change in this capacity.

'Carrying hay' illustration for the aformentioned manuscript "Blood is thicker than Water" *(Durham; MS 45/51)*

^{Image displayed on left: an excerpt from a manuscript of the lecture 'Some old Montenegrin customs', given at the Horniman Museum on 12th February 1927 (Durham; MS 44/4)}

Public Figure & Legacy

_{How, then, did Miss Durham's contemporaries view her, and how did she engage with their views?}

Miss Durham's collection contains excerpts from newspapers that reviewed her work, which she pasted together in a scrapbook and dated. From this, we can gauge multiple things about the nature of her writing, the underlying processes of her work, and the intellectual and popular climates within which she was writing.

We can see from the range of newspaper reviews that travel writing was a popular genre of readership, hence its discussion in newspapers that would have been widely available and widely circulated.

^{"She belongs indeed to that small but intrepid band of women travellers of whom the late Mrs. Bishop and the late Miss Mary Kingsley were perhaps typical members. Like them too, Miss Durham is able to embody her travels and her adventures into a literary form which gains great acceptance at the hands of the reading public."}

It is evident here that not only was travel writing popular, but it was a realm which some female travel writers could occupy, and do so successfully. The implication here is that Durham, like Mrs. Bishop and Miss Kingsley, was not popular amongst readers simply because she wrote about her travels, but because of the way in which she wrote about them.

_{Image displayed on right: a review of The Burden of the Balkans in The Irish Times, 23rd June 1905 (Durham; MS 53/1)}

This success for Durham was evident from the numerous reviews that she received, suggesting that she was incredibly popular amongst her contemporaries, or, at the very least, her work was well worth reviewing. This was also the case when her reviewers were more critical of her stances, particularly when it came to her stronghold attitude towards the 'Bulgarians of Macedonia'.

^{"On the whole "The Burden of the Balkans" is to be recommended as a very agreeable book of travel, but as a contribution to the study of Balkan politics a great deal of it is both misleading and unfair."}

Whilst this more critical review no doubt served to provide a constructive analysis of Durham's work, it does also highlight the versatility of her writing; her writing was, of course, read as an insightful form of travel writing, but more unusually, it was read as an intervention in the political field.

Not only did Durham -- at a time when English women could not participate in popular politics or vote -- feel that she was able to comment on political matters, but the authority of her authorial voice and reputation meant that it was often recognised as such too, regardless of whether these male reviewers agreed with her conclusions.

_{Image displayed on right: reviews of The Burden of the Balkans in various newspapers, March 1905 (Durham; MS 53/1)}

Durham's active scrapbooking of these reviews demonstrates that she was aware of, and paid close attention to, her audience and reach, even if these included more negative reviews, like the aforementioned review in The Times.

Durham's engagement with her audience was also evident in an earlier letter to the editor of The Times, pictured on the right. Again, we can see Durham's active interest in politics combined with her own experiences, as she discussed her perceptions of the reform schemes debated in parliament. The letter also indicates the variety of people that Durham was meeting; the unhappy peasants, a Bulgarian Bishop, a man connected with the revolutionary movement.

^{"In dealing with the present position of affairs in the Balkan Peninsula she expressed the hope that all the Balkan people would succeed in getting their rights, and that when the land was divided, the Albanians would get their fair share."}

The image on the right further shows a discussion of one of Durham's lectures to a "large and attentive audience". Here we see that Durham not only reached people through her writing, and through reviews of her writing in national publications, but also in physical public forums. Once more we can see that Durham did not simply present anecdotal travel stories, but she used both her writing and lectures to further insert her own personal political opinions.

_{Image displayed on right: a review of Miss Durham's work, 6th March 1905 (Durham; MS 53)}

^{"She is witty, moving, and instructive by turns, and she so renders the strange pageant through which she moved - she is the first Englishwoman to penetrate this wild interior - that we almost grow to lose our sense of its weirdness and anachronism. Her impressions are as accurate as they are vivid, and her descriptions appeal as irresistibly to the imagation as do her sketches to the eye."}

Most significantly though, the way in which reviewers and writers described Miss Durham shows that, whilst travel writing was a popular genre regardless, it was her individual character - her wit, her intellect, and her honesty - that solidified her success.

_{Image displayed on right: a review of The Burden of The Balkans in The Speaker, 25th March 1905 (Durham; MS 53/1)}

Miss Durham retained a particularly strong relationship with the Albanian community, which is unsurpising given her evident admiration for, and defence of, the people of Albania.

In 1918, she became a Secretary for the newly-formed Anglo-Albanian Society, which usually held its meetings in a Committee Room at the House of Commons. Her manuscripts feature the notes that she took as joint Secretary, including lists of council members and minutes of meetings.

The Society was in its infancy when Durham worked for them, hence the meetings often described the debates that the present members had over the expansion of their Society and the nature of their work.

^{Image displayed on left: excerpts of minutes of the Anglo-Albanian Society, dated 28th February 1918 (Durham; MS 58)}

Miss Durham's presence in these meetings and her role as Secretary demonstrates that she maintained her role as an active interlocutor of Albanian politics.

Included in these meeting notes are the rules submitted to and adopted by the Society on 9th June 1920, showing the significance of the work that Durham was not only witnessing, but also helping to shape.

^{"1. That the aim of the Society is to do all in its power to ensure that the Independence of Albania as laid down in 1913 at the Ambassadors Conference at London should be recognised by the Powers and given effect to."}

Meeting notes of the Anglo-Albanian Society on 9th June 1920 *(Durham; MS 58)*

^{"6. That the Albanian delegates and other Albanians shall be welcome as visitors to the meetings of the Society and consulted as to the wishes and views of their country."}

^{Image displayed on left: Sketches of Albanians in Podgorica, 1900 (Durham; 300.49-5-020)}

Miss Durham's close relationship with the Albanians continued until her final years.

^{"I should like to say that my services in relief work have not been forgotten by the Albanians. The Albanian colony in USA sent me £132 for my birthday saying I had fed them & they must feed me, so sent half a dozen large food parcels as well. I was deeply touched."}

--- Durham, in a letter sent to Dr Morant on 25th May, 1944 (Durham; MS 43)

Miss Durham passed away on 15th November 1944. She is still remembered fondly and celebrated by the people of Albania today.

^{Image displayed on left: 'Albanians' (Durham; 400_035708)}

Overall, Edith Durham's legacy was determined by her commitment to not only documenting her travels, but to embracing the everyday lives of the Balkan peoples. It was her literary, political, and artistic skills -- coupled with her dedication to advocacy and the maintenance of close reciprocal relationships -- that cemented her role as one of the most successful female anthropologists in history.

This exhibition was researched, curated and produced by Lavínia Cyrillo and Sophy Higgins, two postgraduate students in the History Department at King's College London, based on their research completed during an internship with the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. The internship was undertaken as part of a module for their MA programmes, with Lavínia working towards an MA in Modern History, and Sophy working towards an MA in Early Modern History.