Setting the Stage: Empires on the Eve of Revolution
Learn how the Spanish presence in North America shaped the battle for American independence.
The French and Indian War
The French and Indian War (1754–1763), also known as the Seven Years’ War, revolved around territorial disputes between England and France, with Indigenous peoples in North America playing significant roles as allies and intermediaries.
French Losses
Facing defeat after the British invasion of Canada in 1759–1760, the French allied with the Spanish on August 15, 1761. If the war did not end before May 1, 1762, Spain would declare war on England.
Spain Enters the War
The British government found out about the agreement and declared war on Spain on January 4, 1762.
Spain Acquires French Territories in North America
While Spain was not directly engaged in the conflict in continental North America, it gained substantial territory. In the secret 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau between France and Spain, France gave the territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi and New Orleans to Spain.
Siege of Havana
In August 1762, Spain lost Cuba to Great Britain following the six-month siege of Havana.
The War Ends
In the 1763 Treaty of Paris, England gained control over French territories east of the Mississippi.
Spain traded Florida to Britain in exchange for the return of Cuba.
This division of the North American continent lasted until the end of the American Revolution.
Spain and the Coming of the American Revolution
In less than ten years, the political landscape of North America had dramatically changed.
With France having lost most of its territorial claims in North America, Spain aimed to undermine its British rival, and thus supported the patriot cause in the American Revolution.
Drag the slider to compare European colonial claims in North America before and after the Seven Years’ War.
Taking New Territory: Spanish Louisiana
The First Spanish Governor: Don Antonio de Ulloa
Although Spain acquired Louisiana in 1762, the first Spanish colonial governor, Don Antonio de Ulloa, did not arrive until March 1766 and failed to transfer power until 1767. Once in power, Ulloa instituted strict trade regulations that the French Creole elite felt threatened their economy. The New Orleans Superior Council rebelled and banished Ulloa and all the Spaniards.
Governor Don Antonio de Ulloa
The Second Spanish Governor: General Alexandre O’Reilly
In response, Spain sent 2,000 troops under the command of General Alexandre O'Reilly. He took possession of New Orleans on August 18, 1769, without bloodshed.
Governor General Alejandro O’Reilly
The Foundations of Trade and Security
Spanish fortifications and settlements along the Mississippi River helped establish Spain’s control over one of North America’s most important transportation routes.
Fort Don Carlos
Fort San Fernando de las Barrancas
Natchitoches
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Galveztown
Bayou Teche (New Iberia)
New Orleans
Fort St. Philip
Fort Don Carlos
Fort Don Carlos: Originally built by Spanish forces in 1767 at the convergence of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. After an attack by British and Native Americans in 1780, the original fort was abandoned and a new Fort San Carlos was constructed within the city limits. St. Louis became an important center for Spanish administration and trade in the Upper Mississippi Valley.
Fort San Fernando de las Barrancas
Established in 1795, this fort was part of Spain's effort to assert control over the Lower Mississippi River valley. It was located on a bluff overlooking the river, providing a strategic defensive position.
Natchitoches
The French established the settlement in 1714, making it the oldest permanent European settlement in Louisiana. During Spanish rule, it served as a vital trading post and military outpost that facilitated trade with the Spanish colonies in Texas and acted as a crucial link between Louisiana and the Spanish territories to the west.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Initially a French settlement, it was taken over by the Spanish in 1763. Under Spanish rule, it served as a military post and a barrier against British encroachment from the east. The Spanish built Fort San Carlos in Baton Rouge.
Galveztown
Named after the Spanish governor Bernardo de Gálvez, the town was settled by Canary Islanders (Isleños). Located at the junction of the Amite River and Bayou Manchac, the town functioned as a defensive outpost against British incursions from West Florida. It was abandoned in 1810 due to disease, floods, hurricanes, droughts, and high shipping costs. The present-day town of Galvez, Louisiana, is located just west of the original Galveztown.
Bayou Teche (New Iberia)
Bayou Teche (New Iberia): Spanish immigrants from Málaga, Spain, settled in the area in 1779 and named it Nueva Iberia (New Iberia). This settlement played a key role in the cultural and agricultural growth of the region, particularly in the cultivation of rice and sugarcane, which became vital crops in the area.
New Orleans
Founded by the French in 1718, New Orleans was turned over to the Spanish in the 1763 Treaty of Paris. As the capital of Spanish Louisiana, it served as the colony’s administrative, military, and cultural center. The Spanish significantly contributed to the city’s infrastructure, including rebuilding much of it after major fires in the late eighteenth century.
Fort St. Philip
Originally built by the French, this fort was strengthened by the Spanish when they gained control of Louisiana in 1763. Fort St. Philip guarded the approach to New Orleans via the Mississippi River and was crucial in controlling river traffic.
Trade & Influence
In the eighteenth century, important trade routes connected Spain with colonial America. When the Revolution began, merchants used these trade routes to deliver Spanish aid to the Continental Army.
Oliver Pollock and Trade with Louisiana
Oliver Pollock was a wealthy merchant and key financier of the American Revolution.
After moving from Ireland in 1760, he created a successful trading business in Philadelphia and New Orleans.
In 1769, Pollock moved to Spanish-ruled New Orleans to capitalize on trade opportunities in the Mississippi Valley.
Plan of the City of New Orleans and adjacent plantations
Pollock established a merchant house in New Orleans that traded in flour from Philadelphia, goods from Spain and London, and enslaved Africans from the Spanish West Indies.
The American Revolution
Pollock’s strategic supply chain gave colonial forces an advantage over the British. He helped George Rogers Clark protect the Northwest Territory by shipping weapons, gunpowder, ammunition, and medical equipment up the Mississippi River from New Orleans. In 1777, he also sent gunpowder to George Washington’s army.
Pollock's Legacies
Pollock is also credited with introducing the dollar sign. In his writings, he shortened the Spanish peso (ps) by overlapping the “p” and the “s,” which resulted in “$.” One of his business partners, Robert Morris, adopted the symbol as the official currency symbol for the new nation in 1797.
In today’s money, Pollock spent almost a billion dollars supporting the American cause. Without his patriotism and business connections, American independence might not have happened.
Gardoqui & Sons and The Cod Trade with New England
The Gardoquis, a Spanish merchant family, grew wealthy shipping goods between New England and Spain in the eighteenth century. When the Revolution began, the Gardoquis used these connections to deliver aid to the Continental Army.
Cod and the New England Economy
Cod was vital to the Gardoquis business and New England’s economy. New England fishermen packed cod into barrels of salt for preservation and sent thousands of tons to Europe each year. New England merchants also delivered cod to Caribbean plantations as a cheap food source for the enslaved.
Building a Trade Network
José de Gardoqui, patriarch of the Gardoqui family, began importing cod from New England in 1763. He acquired the fish in exchange for Spanish iron and wool, which the Continental Army desperately needed. Gardoqui ships often sailed from seaports in Massachusetts to Bilbao, Spain, to a second Spanish port in Cádiz, and finally back to Massachusetts.
Trade in the Service of War
José’s son Diego used these trade networks to send Americans aid during the Revolution. He learned the merchant trade from family mentors and through a London apprenticeship with the East India Company. In 1765, Diego and his siblings took over José Gardoqui & Sons.
As the Revolutionary War loomed, New England merchants implored the Gardoquis to send provisions from Spain. Diego answered their calls. In 1775, Diego de Gardoqui supplied Washington’s troops with hundreds of pistols and bayonets. After securing King Carlos III’s approval, he also shipped 21 tons of gunpowder.
Though Spain did not declare war on Britain until 1779, they continued to secretly aid American troops between 1775 and 1779. The Gardoquis delivered many of these shipments, supplying weaponry, medicine, and blankets to their “American friends . . . in the present troublesome times.” (Gardoqui e Hijos to Arthur Lee, 1778, Gilder Lehrman Collection, GLC01450.523) Diego de Gardoqui even arranged meetings between Spanish and American officials.
19th and 20th century depictions of Valley Forge and Letter from the Gardoqui firm discussing military aid.
After the Revolution, Diego de Gardoqui arrived in New York as Spain’s first ambassador to the new nation. He continued to corresponded with founding fathers including John Jay, Henry Knox, and George Washington.
