A Symbol of Strength: Conservation of Jaguars in Costa Rica

Up close shot of jaguar staring into camera.

It is beautiful, charismatic, an animal you won’t forget if you see it in the wild … it gets to people’s hearts. ~ Andres Vega, conservationist

Background

Role in Ecosystem

The largest feline species in Costa Rica is the Panthera onca, or jaguar. Known to be adaptable to many habitats, jaguars can be found in rainforests, grasslands, wetlands, and scrublands. They tend to gravitate towards areas with streams and rivers. To the left is a video illustrating the Costa Rican ecosystem where jaguars live.

A jaguar’s diet consists of over 85 prey species, including both wild and domestic animals. As a top predator, the jaguar regulates prey species that exist lower on the food chain, such as capybaras, deer, and peccaries. 

A food chain that illustrates jaguars as large predators at top.

Credit: Matt Gerber, 2014.

These big cats are thus considered a keystone species, making their survival crucial to the stability of the surrounding ecosystem. Their presence also serves as an ‘indicator species’ - meaning that jaguars can help indicate if their ecosystem is healthy and resilient.

If the jaguar were to disappear, grazing animal populations normally controlled - like deer - would alter the landscape, eating away at plants that sustain other species. This could lead to drastic changes in the ecosystem and a disruption in the population dynamics of other species.


Population Distribution

Over the past 100 years, the population distribution of jaguars has changed significantly. Originally, jaguars were distributed throughout the southern US and Mexico, Central America, and South America.

A recent scientific assessment from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (ICUN) found that the current range of jaguars is 51% of their historic range. Today, only limited numbers of jaguars are found in Central and Southern America.

The current (red) and historic (pink) range of jaguars. Credit: IUCN Red List.

Jaguars require 100 square miles of land, with sufficient prey, to survive. They traverse large distances to seek areas with a higher prey density. Additionally, jaguars attempt to establish their own territories. Male jaguars tend to disperse further than females, and jaguars within dry climates disperse further than those residing within areas with more water.

On average, a jaguar’s home range can be anywhere from 30 square miles to 60 square miles. As time has progressed, this land requirement has been more difficult to fulfill, as much of the jaguar’s current population is fragmented


Mother jaguar and her cub play fight. Credit: Tambako The Jaguar, 2011.

Remaining Population

Due to the elusiveness of the species, it is difficult to estimate the exact population of jaguars remaining. There are said to be between 15,000 and 75,000 left in the wild. While the ICUN lists jaguars as threatened worldwide, within Costa Rica they are classified as critically endangered.

Most jaguars in Costa Rica live within national parks or preserves. The Osa Peninsula, where Corcovado National Park is located, is one of the last areas in Central America where there is a concentration of jaguars.

Displayed here is an interactive map showing the areas that are home to the majority of jaguars within Costa Rica. Over a quarter of land in Costa Rica is classified as ‘protected’, meaning reserves, national parks, refuges, and protected zones have been established to conserve biodiversity - which includes jaguars! Within preserves and refuges, jaguars can be easily monitored and researched to assure their continued survival. 

Credit: 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.


Save One, Save Many

Jaguars are also considered an umbrella species, which means that in conserving key jaguar habitats, simultaneously other keystone species are protected. Experts in the field -- including Andres Vega, a conservationist who works extensively in the Osa Peninsula, and Lisanne Petracca, a former Panthera associate --impress that by protecting jaguars we are protecting a multitude of endangered Costa Rican species. Some of these other species include the green sea turtle, Baird’s tapir, and great green macaw.

A great green macaw, Baird's tapir, and green sea turtle - some of the endangered species protected when jaguars are protected. Credit: Shutterstock.

Jaguars in Peril

A woman wearing a vintage jaguar pelt coat.

Fendi jaguar jacket circa 1971. Credit: Lagerfeld, 1971.

History

Historically, killing a jaguar was part of a religious ceremony or seen as a symbol of status. However, as ranches and settlements began to develop in Latin America, jaguars lost their religious significance. They came to be viewed as dangerous predators, and were often shot. These killings came to be even more common due to the post-World War II fur trend. In 1969 alone, the United States imported almost 10,000 jaguar pelts.

In 1973, jaguars were included in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), a measure that banned the trade of endangered species. Despite this ban, law enforcement was minimal and these cats were pushed to extinction in El Salvador and Uruguay. These historical factors hold explanatory power for the decline in jaguar populations today. 

Human-Jaguar Conflict

Today, jaguars are critically endangered in Costa Rica for two major reasons: direct conflict between humans and jaguars, and habitat loss. Specifically in Costa Rica, the conflict between humans and jaguars has its roots in indigenous history, where jaguars were commonly seen as either sources of food or competitors. This narrative is still widely believed today by Ticos (non-indigenous peoples) and Cabécars (an indigenous culture).

This table shows the different perspectives that Ticos and Cabécars have regarding jaguars, whether that be as man-eaters, a source of competition, or as food. Credit: Jennifer Kelly, 2019.

Sport hunting remains relatively common, despite having been outlawed, and there is a robust illegal trade of jaguar pelts. Renowned conservationists in Costa Rica find that poaching is one of the more common modern threats to jaguars. The image on the right displays a jaguar pelt laid flat, to be sold later.


An even larger source of jaguar-human conflict is farmers. Farmers will kill jaguars in order to protect their crops and livestock. As wild prey populations decline, jaguars are forced to turn to domestic animals. Cows in particular make great prey for jaguars, so these large cats will break into ranches and kill cattle for a meal. This leads to farmers retaliating, wielding machetes and killing the intruding jaguars.

Ranchers pose in front of jaguar cubs slain in retaliation to cattle predation. Credit: Anonymous, 2008.

To make matters worse, in recent years, farms have begun to replace wildlife corridors in some areas of Costa Rica. This means that when jaguars leave their sanctuary, they end up on farmland, instead of a safe pathway between one sanctuary and another. This increases the incidence of jaguars on farmland, and therefore farmer-jaguar conflicts.

Habitat Loss

Jaguars are also facing immense habitat loss, and are thus confined to smaller and smaller areas. As a species that needs at least 100 square miles of roaming space to thrive, shrinking habitat is incredibly damaging to the jaguar. The two main reasons for mass deforestation in Costa Rica are the logging industry and agriculture.

As these endeavors take up more of the limited land in Costa Rica, jaguars have less space to roam and thrive. As a species that lives best in densely treed areas, logging and agriculture alter the environment to be inhospitable for jaguars. In the figure on the left below, dark green represents forest cover, and light green represents other land. For many years forest cover in Costa Rica was in decline because of advances in economic development and agriculture. It is only through conservation efforts that the Costa Rican rainforests have begun to reemerge. On the right is an image of farmland that has replaced forest.

The video below discusses another problem related to habitat loss - the genetic problems related to isolation and fragmentation. When the genetic diversity of jaguars is reduced, their fitness, ability to respond to environmental challenges, and disease resistance also decreases. A weakened jaguars species will continue to decline until they reach extinction.

Credit: Romi Castagnino, director, YouTube, Mongabay, 16 Mar. 2021

Another ecological detriment to the jaguar is the decline in prey populations such as monkeys, deer, and birds. This decline in prey also comes from habitat loss. Jaguars are faced with less food, and therefore unable to reproduce as much. These issues of food and habitat loss further exacerbates the conflict between farmers and jaguars, as jaguars are forced to encroach further into farmland. 

Solutions

Voices from the Community

The aforementioned conflict between local communities and jaguars is important to understand, because it allows a targeted conservation effort. A survey made in the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor -- that spans several countries including Belize, Guatemala and Costa Rica -- has shown that Ticos (non-indigenous peoples) don’t encounter jaguars as often as Cabécars (indigenous peoples). This means Ticos may be more receptive to conservation outreach.

Understanding both Tico and Cabécars opinions about jaguars also allows for a broader and more flexible conservation approach that takes into account all the values of the local communities. An example of this is in Kenya, where the Lion Guardian Program is based on the cultural values of the Maasai, thus allowing positive transformative change.

A quote from a member of the Maasai community who participates in the Lion Guardian Program. Credit: Simba Guardian, 2014.

By tailoring a conservation program specifically taking in mind the cultural values of the Cabécars, positive change can also be possible for jaguars. On the left is an image of members of the Cabécar indigenous community. Outreach to the Cabécar community is crucial, as they are historically less inclined to have a positive perception of jaguars.

Armed guards protect a population of jaguars at Las Alturas del Bosque Verde. Credit: José González-Maya, 2009.

José Fernando Gonzalez-Maya is a member of ProCAT and the scientific director of Sierra to Sea Institute in Costa Rica, a non-governmental organization working to improve biodiversity and human well-being. He discusses how to approach conservation on private property in Costa Rica while taking into account the human aspects:

It’s really complex because you need to consider all the interests people have in using the landscape for obviously, economic and social reasons. But then, you have the cultural aspect of conservation, which is how people approach the nature, how people use nature, and how people benefit from nature. At the end, conservation only works when you involve people and help them understand that they need the ecosystems to survive.

Camera Traps

The cornerstone to effectively conserving jaguars is having accurate information about their abundance and density. This allows conservationists to make informed decisions about protection tactics. The nonprofit group Osa Conservation has tackled this challenge, setting up a region-wide network of camera traps to capture images of jaguars.

A jaguar caught on film. Credit: Andres Vega, 2017.

The cameras are strategically placed in areas with a high probability of jaguar presence. They are motion-sensored, snapping a photo when an animal passes by. Jaguars have distinctive fur patterns, so scientists can identify them individually, as well as gain an understanding of general population trends. With this information, scientists and conservationists can more precisely implement conservation strategies.

Biological Corridors

Another solution to the decline of jaguars is establishing and monitoring biological corridors. In 2009, Costa Rica signed off on the establishment of Barbilla Jaguar Corridor. This corridor is made up of hundreds of privately owned patches, which The Jaguar Project oversees. They make sure their partnered properties abide by their habitat and jaguar conservation practices, such as no hunting or deforestation in the protected corridor.

This map illustrates how biological corridors can help jaguars travel from one Costa Rican national park to another. Credit: OSA Conservation

The Project also raises awareness for jaguar conservation and expresses their innovative ideas for farmers in the area. Some of these ideas include using farmers’ cacao monoculture plantations to also function as a habitat, layering the plantations one top of each other so more of the natural habitat can be repaired. Lastly, The Project advises residents in the corridor to apply for the FONAFIFO program, a government program enforcing restoration of damaged habitats, and helps their residents file the paperwork.

The map to the left illustrates how jaguar corridors can connect key jaguar populations all throughout Central and South America.

Case Studies in Argentina and Belize

While Costa Rica is already one of the leading countries in jaguar conservation, we can use other countries as inspiration for possible solutions. Important lessons can be learned through studying what ideas have been successful in other nations. At Iberá National Park in Argentina, jaguars went locally extinct due to hunting and habitat loss. But recently, three jaguars have been released in January 2021 as part of an ongoing rewilding project. Other species have already been successfully reintroduced, and the park is hoping to establish a healthy and genetically diverse jaguar population. Both local residents and farmers are very excited for this project, as it is a step towards restoring their community’s identity. Costa Rica can utilize a similar rewilding strategy to protect their own jaguar populations.

Brother and sister Mbareté and Arami sleeping with their mom in the Jaguar Reintroduction Center, soon to be released into the Iberá National Park. Credit: Channing Sargent. 2019.

Other countries have adopted aggressive and effective strategies. In Belize, a robust program of conservation laws and creation of wildlife sanctuaries have largely protected jaguar populations. However, the Mayan hunters, traditionally at odds with jaguars, have adopted a community-based conservation strategy. There is a strong desire to participate in the ecotourism industry, creating incentive to protect the jaguars. When done in an environmentally responsible way, the ecotourism industry can create an increased desire to protect native wildlife, while stimulating the economy. Costa Rican people that are typically at odds with jaguar populations can be integrated into the already-robust ecotourism industry, incentivizing them to refrain from harming jaguars.

An example of ecotourism drawing attention to jaguars and their habitat in Belize. Credit: Shutterstock.

What Can You Do?

Act Now

We have the power to act now and help jaguars thrive once again. Every action makes a difference.

Donate

You can donate to jaguar conservation organizations. This includes organizations that focus on rewilding and habitat restoration, enhancing communication between farmers and indigenous peoples, and establishing national parks and protected lands.

Educate

Educate the members of your communities about Costa Rican jaguars, and why they are so essential to their ecosystems.

Speak Up

If you are from or live in Costa Rica, speak to your government officials about jaguar conservation, and why we need strong policies to protect them.

Now More Than Ever

Credit: Jenna Lozano

Costa Rican jaguars are a keystone species within their ecosystem and play an essential role in maintaining a balance between predator and prey. Not only are these species integral, the jaguar is also an amazing creature whose powerful image reminds us of the strength and wonders that lie within Costa Rica's rainforests. We need to act now before this unique species disappears forever.

Links to Help

Below are descriptions of three websites focused on the conservation of jaguars. While some - like Fundación Jaguar - are specific to Costa Rica, others cover a broader range of jaguars in Central and South America. Use these links to find additional resources, as well as opportunities to donate to the cause.


Panthera believes that the presence of wild cats indicates healthy ecosystems, which are necessary to support both humans and other creatures. That’s why they work to protect the world’s 40 wild cat species, ranging from big cats like tigers and jaguars, to smaller cats including ocelots. Their jaguar centered projects mainly revolve around the Jaguar Corridor Initiative -- connecting and protecting core jaguar populations across several countries.


Fundación Jaguar believes that forming key alliances with several organizations to better fund jaguar conservation research, is one of the best methods to save the jaguars. Through these partnerships, they seek to (1) monitor jaguar and prey populations, (2) determine the genetic variability of both wild and captive jaguars, (3) raise awareness amongst communities close to jaguar populations, (4) promote education amongst farmers, and (5) modify the scope of the Wildlife Conservation Law (No. 7317), chapter IV, article 22.


The World Wildlife Fund’s goal is to “conserve nature and reduce the most pressing threats to the diversity of life and Earth”. They tackle issues such as global climate change, food security, and ocean and wildlife conservation. This organization works in nearly 100 countries and aims to communicate with diverse stakeholders to solve problems. While this organization doesn’t have projects specific to jaguars in Costa Rica, donations would go towards helping jaguar conservation globally.


Special thanks to Andres Vega and Lisanne Petracca for providing us with invaluable knowledge, media, and resources.


Works Cited

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Thornton D, Zeller K, Rondinini C, Boitani L, Crooks K, Burdett C, Rabinowitz A, Quigley H. 2016. Assessing the umbrella value of a range‐wide conservation network for jaguars (Panthera onca). Ecological Applications 26 DOI: 10.1890/15-0602.

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Neto M. 2011. Attacks by Jaguars (Panthera onca) on Humans in Central Brazil: Report of Three Cases, with Observation of a Death. Available from https://www-clinicalkey-com.ezproxy.library.tufts.edu/#!/content/playContent/1-s2.0-S1080603211000445?returnurl=null&referrer=null (accessed April 22, 2021).  

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Images:

Anonymous. 2008. Jaguar cubs killed in the Pantanal by ranchers in retaliation to cattle predation. Available from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228831792_Management_of_Domestic_Livestock_Predation_by_Jaguars_in_Brazil (accessed May 2021).

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Images courtesy of shutterstock (accessed May 2021).

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Videos:

Andrés Vega. 2021. Jaguar in Corcovado. Provided by the creator.

Castagnino R. 2021. Connecting Jaguars: How Cerrado Wildlife Corridors Could Help Jaguar Conservation. Available from: www.youtube.com/watch?v=x8jRTe2fUYk (accessed April 2021).

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Fendi jaguar jacket circa 1971. Credit: Lagerfeld, 1971.

Brother and sister Mbareté and Arami sleeping with their mom in the Jaguar Reintroduction Center, soon to be released into the Iberá National Park. Credit: Channing Sargent. 2019.

An example of ecotourism drawing attention to jaguars and their habitat in Belize. Credit: Shutterstock.

Credit: Jenna Lozano

Credit: Matt Gerber, 2014.

The current (red) and historic (pink) range of jaguars. Credit: IUCN Red List.

Mother jaguar and her cub play fight. Credit: Tambako The Jaguar, 2011.

Credit: 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

A great green macaw, Baird's tapir, and green sea turtle - some of the endangered species protected when jaguars are protected. Credit: Shutterstock.

This table shows the different perspectives that Ticos and Cabécars have regarding jaguars, whether that be as man-eaters, a source of competition, or as food. Credit: Jennifer Kelly, 2019.

Ranchers pose in front of jaguar cubs slain in retaliation to cattle predation. Credit: Anonymous, 2008.

A quote from a member of the Maasai community who participates in the Lion Guardian Program. Credit: Simba Guardian, 2014.

Armed guards protect a population of jaguars at Las Alturas del Bosque Verde. Credit: José González-Maya, 2009.

This map illustrates how biological corridors can help jaguars travel from one Costa Rican national park to another. Credit: OSA Conservation