Uruk - The World's First Metropolis

Uruk was a large, ancient metropolis located in Mesopotamia (meaning "(land) between rivers"), a fertile region in the Near East situated between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The city of Uruk (also known as Warka) in southern Iraq has long played a salient role in history that has long occupied the minds of scholars. Established in the fourth millennium BCE, Uruk served as the primary catalyst for urbanization and state formation in Mesopotamia during the Uruk period, named after this pioneering "first city." The Uruk period was formative for the social, political, and cultural history of Mesopotamia and all of human history (Selz, p. 163).

Around 5000 BCE, the head of the Persian Gulf was located approximately 80 kilometers northwest of its current position, with the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers forming a distinct delta. This geographical configuration transformed the area around what would later become Uruk into a well-watered, marshy wetland, facilitating the development of an extensive agricultural system (Nichols). According to author Andrew Lawler, the inhabitants of this delta likely dwelled in two separate communities, Kullaba and Eanna, strategically positioned on elevated ground away from the Euphrates. Over time, these communities merged into a singular, burgeoning settlement that evolved into the focal point of a great metropolis (p. 28).

Within a millennium, the residents of these rapidly expanding villages initiated the construction of an urban space replete with temples and public structures atop two prominent elevations overlooking the Euphrates (Lawler, p. 26). Surveys conducted in the Uruk countryside indicate a continual influx of people into this consolidated settlement, leading to the abandonment of numerous smaller communities in the vicinity (Nichols). With each successive generation, the city witnessed the construction of temples, palaces, and administrative buildings, resulting in sustained growth, while the life-sustaining Euphrates continued to course through the heart of the city. At its zenith in 2900 BCE, more than 50,000 individuals inhabited the two-and-a-half square miles enclosed by the city walls (Lawler, p. 28).

The emergence of Uruk necessitated a more intricate form of governance, marking the ascendance of the state. During the Middle Uruk period, archaeological evidence points to a four-level administrative hierarchy prevalent in the region, indicative of a structured societal organization (Nichols). However, at the zenith of Uruk's social order, the preeminent figures were the "ruler-priests," a designation substantiated by numerous iconographic sources. These ruler-priests were not depicted individually but rather as a distinct type, identifiable by their distinctive hairstyle and attire—characterized by a brimmed cap and a lengthy kilt (Selz, p. 216).

Referred to as en, these priest-kings played a pivotal role in Uruk society. The en was recognized as a figure instrumental in fostering abundance and prosperity within the city. According to author Thorkild Jacobsen, beyond their symbolic significance, the en assumed a crucial role in the yearly fertility drama known as the Sacred Marriage, participating as the spouse of the city deity. Moreover, their personal charisma and leadership acumen enabled them to effectively manage the affairs of the city, contributing to its productivity and success (p. 5947). This amalgamation of religious and political authority in the en exemplifies the unique sociopolitical dynamics of Uruk during its formative years.

In Uruk, political dynamics were not the sole focal point; religion also held significant sway in shaping daily life within the city. A fundamental tenet of Sumerian religious belief was the notion that each city served as the residence of a specific god or goddess (Nichols). Uruk's paramount central shrine was the main sanctuary of Ianna/Ishtar, the Sumerian deity associated with love and war. This enduring structure, standing for over three millennia, underwent multiple renovations and expansions. Positioned atop successive terrace platforms, it loomed over the city's skyline, serving as a prominent landmark visible from a considerable distance (Crüsemann, et al., p. 14).

Symbols and texts played a crucial role in upholding and substantiating Sumerians' religious beliefs. Among these, the Epic of Gilgamesh stands out as the oldest and arguably most renowned. This epic poem recounts the exploits of Gilgamesh, the heroic (and first) god-king of Uruk, in his pursuit of eternal life. The genesis of this epic is commonly traced back to the court of the third dynasty of Ur, circa 2100 to 2000 BCE, where rulers sought to establish a direct lineage between Gilgamesh and the Uruk royalty. However, even earlier texts related to the Gilgamesh saga can be traced back to 2500 to 2400 BCE (Pettinato, p. 3486).

Owing to Uruk's cultural and economic prominence, the city wielded significant power and influence across Mesopotamia during its zenith, engaging in extensive trade with others from the Near East and beyond. The establishment of the "Uruk network" is widely acknowledged as a response to the scarcity of essential resources in southern Mesopotamia, prompting the necessity for permanent outposts along crucial trade routes to sustain these connections (Selz, p. 186).

By the late fourth millennium BCE, Uruk transcended its status as a mere city, evolving into the focal point of an international trading system. This network facilitated the transportation of precious stones and metals, unavailable within the Mesopotamian plain, to the Euphrates docks. In reciprocation, Uruk-style artifacts were traded as far west as the Mediterranean and as far east as Pakistan, underscoring the city's far-reaching economic influence (Lawler, p. 31).

Similar to many great cities of antiquity, Uruk experienced a gradual decline that marked the conclusion of its zenith. While the city reached the pinnacle of sophistication and population around 2900 BCE, a discernible reduction in regional influence commenced at the end of the fourth millennium BCE, initiating a protracted descent (Lawler, p. 32). Environmental factors may have played a role in this decline, notably a shift in the course of the Euphrates after 2000 BC, contributing to Uruk's diminished standing (Lawler, p. 32).

The once innovative and politically significant area between the rivers transformed, evolving into sparsely settled terrain. In extensive regions, it devolved into little more than grazing pastures for nomadic pastoralists, signifying a departure from its former vibrancy (Crüsemann, et al., p. 75). Although a modest community persisted at the site until the fourth century CE, the arrival of the followers of Mohammad in the seventh century marked the final chapter, as the last remaining residents gradually faded away. Thus, after a rich history spanning five millennia, Uruk found itself abandoned, forsaken by both the Euphrates and the priest-kings who had long upheld its power and prominence (Lawler, p. 32).