The Spread of Salsa
A Geographic History of Salsa Music
Salsa music, like the cuisine, is a hot, upbeat dance music that is a cornerstone of Hispanic-American culture. The term “salsa” was created in 1960’s New York City to commercialize popular Latin American music being created by Cuban and Puerto Rican immigrants, however to understand the origins of the music, we must recognize its origins in the blending of African, European, and indigenous American cultures and musical traditions resulting from the transatlantic slave trade. Thus, Salsa should be understood as a unification of musical and dance traditions from around the globe. Salsa has gone on to further influence many genres of music, perhaps most notably in other popular American styles such as jazz, rock, and hip hop.
The Atlantic Slave Trade
Over 360 years, from the 16th to the 19th centuries, the major Western European imperial powers transported millions of captive African peoples across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold in the Americas for slave labor. Approximately 12.5 million people were transported to the Americas, with about 11 million surviving the passage. Nearly 70% of slaves brought to the Americas were put to work on sugar plantations. The majority of captives were taken from West and Central Africa and Angola by other African peoples and warring factions, and sold in ports along the coast of West Africa. European slavers rarely participated in the raids themselves largely because of weaknesses to local diseases (the life expectancy for Europeans in Africa at the time was less than one year). The majority of slave traders came from the Portuguese, British, Spanish, French, and Dutch empires. It was through the widespread use of slavery and the profits generated by it that European and American powers were able to develop during this time period, in the Americas and abroad.
Drawing of the slave ship Brookes. Taken from: Thomas Clarkson, The history of the rise, progress, and accomplishment of the abolition of the African slave-trade by the British Parliament (London: Longman & Co., 1808).
While slaves were not allowed any possessions, and as can be seen from the illustration above, there was little room in slave ships to transport cultural items or musical instruments, the captive Africans did bring with them to the New World their extensive oral histories, religious traditions and musical knowledge, some of which shall be discussed below.
African contributions to the development of Latin music and Salsa
The widespread importance of the drum to nearly all African cultures cannot be overstated. Drumming plays a role in many aspects of African culture, including but not limited to communication, agriculture, warfare, celebration, mourning, and religious ceremonies. It is the African drumming traditions brought to the Americas through the slave trade that form the rhythmic background of not only Salsa, but nearly all Latin music and has been massively influential to all World music to this day.
Other features of African music which proved hugely influential to the development of Latin musical genres and Salsa in particular are: 1) call and response (antiphonal) singing, in which improvised solo vocal lines are answered by a pre-determined choral response; 2) polymeter, in which meters of differing lengths are played simultaneously; 3) polyrhythms, the superimposition or syncopation of multiple parts on top of a pulse of two or four beats; 4) pentatonic and non-Western scales used mainly in improvised vocal lines; and 5) knowledge of the creation of various percussive and melodic instruments, which led to the re-creation of traditional African instruments within the America's, as well as the invention and adaptation of completely new instruments (Mauleon, 1993).
Influential African Cultures
Several significant African cultures to the development of Salsa music are highlighted on the map to the right. A few of the musical contributions of these cultures will be examined in more depth below, however the Yoruba culture in particular warrants further discussion as perhaps the most influential to the rhythms of Salsa Music.
The Yoruba Culture
The Yoruba people inhabit a significant portion of West Africa, the boundaries of which today are loosely defined by the nation of Nigeria. The Yoruba religion follows a five-fold structure which is belief in a supreme God, lesser deities, Ashe, or spirit/life-force present in all things, in the ancestors and in the practice of magic and medicine (Olusegun, 2015). When brought to Cuba and infused with Catholicism, the Yoruba religion morphed into what is now known as Santeria. Inherent to these beliefs is the concept of animism, or that objects, places and plants/animals all possess a distinct spirit or soul. Because of this, drums are not only a tool or instrument to the Yoruba, but entities which can be communicated with to interact with the spiritual realm. Different rhythms possess different religious significance, and many of these rhythms can now be heard throughout Latin American music. For more information on the Yoruba people and their culture's significance to Cuban music, please listen to the following podcast by the GroundTruth Project.
Yoruba Instruments and Music
Batá drums
Sacred two-headed drums. Played in sets of three in Afro-Cuban music.
Agbes (also known as Shekere)
Beaded gourd shakers, often played in sets of three or more and divided into group sections.
Bembé drums
Drums made from palm tree logs with nailed on skins, tuned with heat. Played in a set of three.
Iyesá drums
A set of four cylindrical two-headed drums, played with sticks. They are divided from largest to smallest as caja, segundo, tercero, and bajo (which is played with the hands).
Yoruba Drumming
Yoruba Drums From Benin (1996, Smithsonian Folkways) - Part 1/2
The Dahomey Kingdom
The Kingdom of Dahomey was a warring state which won it's independence from the greater Oyo empire by capturing key cities on the Atlantic coast. Home to the Fon peoples, it existed from 1600 - 1904 when it was conquered by France. Notable to the Dahomey culture were a centralized political structure, organized military which included all female units, taxation, extensive participation in the slave trade with Europeans, religious practive of Vodun (the precursor to American voodoo), and ritual human sacrifice.
Dahomey Musical Contributions
Tumbas Francesas
Four large painted log drums, divided into parts called premier, sécond, bebé/tambora, and catá (a log which rests on a wooden bench and is hit with wooden sticks)
Arará drums
A set of three to four ceremonial drums. From largest to smallest, these are the caja, the junguedde, the juncito, and the sometimes excluded jun.
Dahomey Drumming
Dahomey Drum, Interludes
The Bantu Peoples
The Bantu peoples consist of numerous groups united by their language. The Proto-Bantu language was spoken 3,000 - 4,000 years ago and is believed to have originated in modern day Cameroon. The culture expanded southward over two millenia and covered much of the Southern continent, however the peoples who were taken captive and transported in the slave trade, and thus make up an important part of the history of Salsa music, largely came from the areas around Angola and the Congo.
Bantu Musical Contributions
Makuta drums
Large, barrel shaped drums which are thought to be precursors to the conga drums.
Yuka drums
Long, cylindrical drums divided into three parts, caja (large), mula (medium), and cachimbo (small).
The Bantu Legacy in Afro-Latin Music
Bantu: The Central African Legacy in Afro-Latin Popular Music
European Contributions to Salsa
Of the many European musical traditions which found their way to the Caribbean cultures, the music of Spain is by far the most prevalent. Due to it's place of importance as a dominant European naval power for many centuries, and the resultant migrations of numerous cultures throughout it's borders, the music of Spain was itself already a combination European, Arabic, Roma (gypsy), Indian, Judaic, and Nordic influences.
The Cuban Tres. Consists of three sets of double strings, traditionally tuned to D minor (D, F, A), although later adaptations used a C major tuning (G, C, E)
Of central importance to the history of Spanish influence in Latin music is the guitar and flamenco music, both of which came to Spain through the interactions with Arabic cultures, particularly the Moors. Spanish guitars were used throughout Latin America, however the Cuban adaptation, the Tres, is of central importance to Afro-Cuban music. The Tres was developed somewhere in the Eastern provinces of Cuba, historically known as the Oriente Province. It is considered so essential to Afro-Cuban music that it has been adopted as the national instrument of Cuba.
The Oriente Province of Cuba, the birthplace of the Tres
Pablo Reyes, a modern Tres player
The European Origins of the Cuban Habanera Dance
The Habanera was a popular Cuban ballroom dance in the mid 1800's, which paved the way for new styles of dance such as Danzón, which would heavily influence the development of modern Salsa dancing. This dance has its origins in English Country Dancing, originally a peasant's dance form which was eventually accepted by all levels of society. Eventually, the English Country Dance would spread throughout the courts of European high society and eventually make its way to Cuba, deeply influencing the musical and dance traditions of Latin America.
English Country Dance
A large number of social dances originating from the British Isles. Originally folk dances, the dances eventually gained popularity with the English nobility. The dances performed by commoners (recreated at a renaissance fair in the video above), generally involved more expressive, joyous movement and often were performed in squares or circles, whereas the dances of the nobility more often were of a restrained nature and were performed in a line.
French Contredanse
The contredanse was a French adaptation of the popular English country dances. Originally emulating the line formation of the English nobility, in which each couple danced its way to the head of a double line, danced a duet, then moved back to the end of the line, the contredanse eventually appropriated the square formations popular in the British Isles as well.
Spanish Contradanza
The Spanish form of the contredanse. It became popular during the 18th century, and quickly spread to the Americas.
Cuban Habanera
The Cuban Habenera became popular in Havana during the 19th century, although at the time practitioners still referred to it as the contradanza of Spain. In truth, it is difficult to establish the exact origin of the dance in Cuba. The Cuban musicologist Natalio Galán jokingly called the dance "anglofrancohispanoafrocubano" (English-French-Spanish-African-Cuban). The Habanera has several important differences from the Spanish contradanza, most notably being played at a slower tempo and the use of the habanera rhythm (itself an adaptation of the tresillo pattern, widely popular in Latin music but of African origin).
Influential Latin Musical Genres
As has been previously discussed, distinct Latin musical traditions emerged largely as the confluence of European, African, and indigenous cultures resultant from the Atlantic slave trade. It is important to note that the indigenous people of the Americas were genocided and colonized by the European settlers, and in many cases their cultures and histories were deliberately and systematically erased. Very little knowledge remains of their musical cultures pre-colonialization, however it is widely accepted that before the adoption of European and African instruments, American musical cultures expressed themselves largely through flutes and percussion.
While the musical cultures of the Caribbean all influenced each other, Salsa should be seen as inherently multi-cultural, however the music of Cuba (and to a slightly lesser extent, Puerto Rico) remains the predominant contributor to the development of Salsa music.
The Sexteto Habanero was an early Son Cubano sextet which played an important part in the popularization of the genre throughout Cuba.
Salsa music is most directly descended from the genre known as Son Cubano, loosely translated as "Cuban Sound". It mostly incorporates Spanish lyrical elements and the essential tres guitar with African percussive elements such as the clave rhythm, call and response structure, and percussive instruments. It was created when Bantu Cubans moved from the Eastern countryside to Havana. As with the African styles which it is derived from, the role of the lyrics was largely to communicate news and history. Of central importance is the clave rhythm, which is played on wooden sticks (which are themselves called claves), and is referenced by the other instruments. The clave pattern forms the rhythmic backbone of Son Cubano, and thus of Salsa music in general.
The Son Clave rhythmic pattern.
Immigration to New York City
While there is a great deal of debate as to the birthplace of Salsa (whether or not Salsa was created in the United States, or is simply a new name for older Afro-Cuban styles of music and should thus be considered Cuban in origin) it is undeniable that the epicenter of Salsa's spread worldwide was in New York City. From the 1930's to the 1960's, a wave of Cuban and Puerto Rican immigrants traveled to New York, and brought their musical styles with them. They settled largely in East Harlem (or "El Barrio", as it was called by residents of an increasingly Hispanic majority), a community notable for its contributions to popular Hispanic-American culture.
The Temple of Mambo
The popularity of Afro-Cuban music in the United States began with the Mambo era of the 1940's-50's, a musical genre and dance descended from the Cuban Habanera. The undisputed home of the Mambo movement in the United States was the Palladium Ballroom, or "the Temple of Mambo".
The Palladium Ballroom was the center of the Mambo craze that spread first throughout the East Coast, and then throughout the entire United States and beyond through the radio. The Palladium was unsegregated by class or color, rather the ability to dance and play music was the social currency of the club. Crucial to the Palladium's success were the performances of the "Big Three" of Mambo, who were directly responsible for the movements success and it's later development into Salsa music: Tito Puente, Tito Rodríguez, and Machito.
The Big Three of Mambo
Machito and his Afro-Cubans
Machito (Early 1900's – April 15, 1984) gave conflicting accounts of his birth, which was either in Havana, Cuba, or Tampa, Florida, sometime between 1908 and 1915. He was raised by foster parents in Havana. He became a professional musician in his teenage years, playing in several band from 1928 to 1937. In 1940, he founded the Afro-Cubans. They pioneered the fusion of Afro-Cuban rhythms with jazz harmony and big band instrumentation. As a result, Machito would be cited as a major influence for numerous Latin and Salsa musicians as well as Jazz musicians alike. For this reason, Machito is perhaps the single most influential musician in the history of Salsa music.
YouTube
Tito Rodriguez
Tito Rodriguez (January 4, 1923 – February 28, 1973) was born in Barrio Obrero, Santurce, Puerto Rico. While as a child, Rodriguez wished to be a jockey, his older brother Johnny inspired him to take up singing lessons. After his parents deaths in 1940, Tito would follow his brother to New York City, where he developed his unique vocal style. By 1947 Tito was the leader of his own band and had achieved a high level of popularity in the Latin scene. He developed a rivalry with Tito Puente which fueled an urban legend in the salsa world, despite both Tito's claiming to be friendly with one another. His final performance was with Machito and his Afro-Cubans on February 2, several weeks before his death from leukemia.
TITO RODRIGUEZ - LIVE!!!!!.1955-MAMBO MADNESS
Tito Puente
Tito Puente (April 20, 1923 – June 1, 2000) was born and raised in East Harlem. From a young age he frustrated neighbors by banging on pots and pans and anything else he could fashion into a makeshift percussive instrument. While he dreamed of being a dancer, a tendon injury prevented him from doing so and he focused on percussion. Puente was drafted into the navy during World War II, where he fought in 9 naval battles. The GI Bill rewarded him for his service by allowing him to attend the Julliard School of Music, where he studied conducting, orchestration and theory. He played for a time as the drummer for Machito and his Afro-Cubans before leaving to lead his own band. Despite being a leading figure in the development of Salsa music, Puentes was never a fan of the term. When asked if he played Salsa music, Puentes replied “I’m a musician, not a cook.”
Tito Puente released his most famous song Oye Como Va in 1963, although it would not gain widespread popularity until Carlos Santana released a cover of the song the album Abraxas.
The Fania All-Stars
While the Big Three certainly did their part in the popularization of Afro-Cuban music in the United States, it was Fania Records, the most successful Salsa record label of all time, that is most responsible for the commercial success and worldwide distribution of Salsa music. The popularization of the term Salsa is most directly attributable to the marketing strategies of Fania Records, who sought to create a unified label that Latin Americans and Spanish speakers could identify with.
The record label was created as the result of a chance meeting of two Latin music lovers, Johnny Pacheco, an accomplished Dominican musician, and Jerry Masucci, a divorce lawyer who represented Pacheco in court. In 1964 they decided to start a record label together. The label struggled at first, with the duo hand-delivering releases to record stores in East Harlem. However as the popularity of Latin music grew in the States, Fania became more and more successful, and hired an ever expanding roster of talented musicians to pump out hit after hit. By the late 60's, Fania was considered to Salsa what Motown is to the Blues. To further capitalize on their success, Pacheco formed the supergroup Fania All-Stars from the label's roster of elite Latin musicians. Their exhilarating performances turned the All-Stars into a cultural phenomenon, and led to them selling out a concert at Yankee Stadium in 1973. This event, perhaps more than any other, brought Salsa music to the world stage.
The Fania All-Stars at the Yankee Stadium
The Influence of Salsa on other Genres
Jazz
Jazz and Latin music share a parallel development, due mainly to their shared origins in the Atlantic slave trade, as well as the fact that the birth place of Jazz, New Orleans, is a member of the greater Caribbean community. So while it is true that these two musical traditions have interacted and influenced each other throughout their histories, the two did not see a direct fusion of "Afro-Cuban Jazz" until Latin music started gaining popularity in the 40's.
Dizzy Gillespie
Machito is credited for bringing Jazz harmonies into the Latin musical tradition, however it was Dizzy Gillespie who is seen as one of the earliest, and certainly the most influential Jazz musician to bring Afro-Cuban rhythms into the Jazz tradition. In 1947, Gillespie was introduced to Chano Pozo, a percussionist and composer. The two would go on to create several of the most influential and foundational works of Afro-Cuban Jazz, such as the song Manteca, bringing Afro-Cuban music inseparably into the Jazz tradition and pioneering Latin Jazz.
Dizzy Gillespie & Chano Pozo - Manteca
Dizzy Gillespie on his relationship with Chano and the significance of Afro-Cuban Jazz
Rock
Latin Rock began to appear in the late 50's in the United States with rock bands incorporating Latin rhythms into their tracks, however many of these could not really be considered "Latin Rock" because they lacked the Latin folk culture and influences. The beginnings of the genre could also be found in South America as the electric guitar was introduced in Latin music and Rock influences began to be heard. However, it wasn't until Carlos Santana's 1969 performance at Woodstock, New York, that the genre gained a self-consciousness and was emulated in the United States and throughout the world.
Carlos Santana performing at Woodstock, 1969
Conclusion
Salsa music should best be understood as a commercialization of Afro-Cuban music which was popularized in New York City from the 40's-70's, and gained worldwide recognition and influence. The genre is largely of Cuban origin, created from the confluence African, European, and American musical traditions, however it should be understood that Salsa and Cuban music are not synonymous. In fact, Salsa and Cuban music have since diverged somewhat, with Cuban music continuing to evolve and incorporate new influences such as Rock, Funk, and electronic music, with Salsa remaining closer to it's roots, partially in order to satisfy the commercial desires of those who crave an authentic Latin musical experience. Through the successful distribution of Salsa records, Salsa has taken to the world stage, and has directly influenced World music as a whole. Some have even said that, as a fusion of global musical traditions, Salsa seeks to emulate World music, while World music has sought to emulate Salsa, to the point that at times the two become indistinguishable.
References
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Fargion, J. (n.d.) Crossings: music and culture across the Atlantic. Retrieved on 3/10/21 from https://www.bl.uk/west-africa/articles/crossings-music-and-culture-across-the-atlantic
Havana Music School. (Jan 19, 2020). The Cuban tres – Symbol of a rich musical tradition. Retrieved on 3/17/21 from https://havanamusicschool.com/the-cuban-tres-symbol-of-a-rich-musical-tradition/
Ilich, T. (March 28, 2019). Son Cubano the Music at the Heart of Cuba. Retrieved on 3/16/21 from https://www.liveabout.com/son-the-heart-of-cuban-music-2141561
Lamadrid, J. (n.d.) The Cuban Son. Retrieved on 3/16/21 from http://www.justsalsa.com/salsa/music/son/
Mauleon, R. (1993). Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Sher Music Co.
Olusegun, O. (2015). YORUBA INDIGENOUS DRUMS: AN AESTHETIC SYMBOL IN ECOLOGICAL RITUAL OF THE YORUBA PEOPLE. Retrieved on 3/16/21 from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/236409049.pdf
Petrov, Peter. (n.d.) Fascinating History and Origins of Latin Music. Retrieved on 3/12/21 from https://www.cultureowl.com/miami/blogs/music/fascinating-history-and-origins-of-latin-music-26
Slavery and Remembrance. (n.d.) Transatlantic Slave Trade. Retrieved on 3/10/21 from http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0002
Waring, C. (Jan 13, 2021). Fania Records: How A New York Label Took Salsa To The World. Retrieved on 3/19/21 from https://www.udiscovermusic.com/stories/fania-records-story/
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