The Oysters of New York's Past
Imagine walking into a New York market and seeing oysters being sold left and right. They would’ve been served raw, cooked or however you liked. When people thought of New York, oysters would have been the first food that popped into their heads. These bivalves were crucial to the city’s history, playing a part in New York’s economy and society.
New York Oysters
Oyster reefs are an important type of ecosystem which supports an impressive number of organisms. These oyster reefs were native to the New York Harbor. The Lenape residents had been living off the reefs for generations, long before Henry Hudson and the ensuing European settlers came to the New World. The 220,000 acres of oyster reefs were an ‘all you can eat’ buffet of these delicious bivalves. It was the Lenape people who showed the settlers how to harvest oysters from the harbor.
"[U]ntil the Europeans arrived, the Lenape had no way of prying open an oyster shell … Indians [the Lenape people] taught the first Europeans in New York to wrap oysters in wet seaweed and throw them on hot coals until they opened." (Kurlansky, 2006, p.17)
Outline map of New York Harbor & vicinity, retrieved from NYPL Digital Collections .
*Red numbers represent the location of the samples taken by the New York Bay Pollution Commission in 1906.
Oyster Demand
Oyster Stands In Fulton Market, retrieved from NYPL Digital Collections .
Oysters were always popular and in high demand. Literal tons of oysters were eaten everyday. Worried that the supply might not last, the local government introduced a conservation law in 1715, banning the harvest of oysters during the months without an R, which lasts from May to August. Oysters reproduce during these warmer months, and it takes time for oyster larvae to plant themselves onto the reefs. This break in between harvests allowed the oyster population to rebound. - Billion Oyster Project
Photo by Urban~commonswiki, distributed under CC BY-SA 3.0
Oysters and African-Americans
Downing's Oyster House
Thomas Downing, New York City pioneer and restaurant owner, retrieved from NYPL Digital Collections .
Keeping up with the demand for oysters, oyster carts lined the streets of New York. You could be walking to work and pick an oyster up for a quick snack. If a meal is what you were looking for, then oyster houses were the place to go. In the middle of the 19th century, one of the most famous of these restaurants was Downing’s Oyster House. Opened by Thomas Downing, a free black man, it was the spot that everyone flocked to when they craved a plate of oysters. People of all social standings came to Downing’s to chow down on shellfish. - MAAP
Photo by Chris Ruvolo, distributed under CC BY-SA 3.0
Oyster Houses, South Street and Pike Slip, Manhattan, retrieved from NYPL Digital Collections .
Thomas and his son, George T. Downing, were leaders in the abolitionist movement, fighting to end slavery. Downing’s Oyster House was also part of the Underground Railroad, helping slaves hide from bounty hunters that roamed the streets. Thomas Downing dedicated his life to fighting for the well-being of African Americans. - MAAP
Sandy Ground
The road to liberty; a station on the Underground Railroad, retrieved from NYPL Digital Collections .
Downing was not the only African American in the oyster trade. Sandy Ground, the oldest continuously inhabited free black settlement in the United States was also developing around this time. Dating back to the early 19th Century, Sandy Ground was founded by free African Americans from New York, Maryland, and Delaware shortly after the abolition of slavery in NY State in 1827. The settlers were skilled in harvesting and farming oysters. They helped maintain the rich oyster beds on Staten Island, using the same kinds of tools as the Lenape people. Before the official abolition of slavery, Sandy Ground was also one of the stops on the Underground Railroad. - Visit Staten Island
Farming oysters requires not just skill, but an arsenal of tools as well. Baskets, for example, were used by the thousands. The people of Sandy Ground learned to weave baskets that would have the durability to last for years. Several of the men had also become blacksmiths. Blacksmithing allowed Sandy Ground residents to make and repair their own oyster rakes, as well as doing ironwork for the boats. They were a self-sufficient community that persevered through the many challenging problems. - Remnick, 2001, p.14
Mine oysters - Dredging boats in the Chesapeake, retrieved from NYPL Digital Collections .
Photo by Bryandigital, distributed under CC BY-SA 4.0
Threats to Oysters
The popularity of New York oysters spread across the nation and to Europe, where large shipments of oysters were being sold. In order to meet the demand, the conservation law from 1715 was lifted in 1807, prompting the unsustainable harvesting of the oyster reefs. The supply was still not enough to meet the demand, and so oysters from Long Island, Connecticut, and New Jersey were brought into New York. These oysters were able to be sold as New York oysters because they were in the harbor for a short amount of time. - Kurlansky, 2006, p.103
Unloading oysters from fisherman's boat, Olga, Louisiana, retrieved from NYPL Digital Collections .
The Combined Sewer system was introduced to the city in 1849, pouring untreated sewage to flow directly into the New York Harbor, when it rained. The sewage polluted local waters as well as oyster reefs, and put extra pressure on the overharvested reefs. By 1906, the harbor had become toxic and nearly lifeless. The final commercial oyster bed in New York City, located in Raritan Bay, closed in 1927. - Kurlansky, 2006, p.264
Map of Combined Sewage Overflow outfalls in New York City. Map created by Stalin Espinal, NYC H2O.
New York Harbor continued to be toxic until well after the Clean Water Act was passed in 1972. This act banned the dumping of pollutants such as raw sewage into the harbor. Water quality began improving, and in 2000, levels of contaminants were low enough that oysters and other critters were able to return. - Billion Oyster Project
Why We Need Oysters
Oysters are a keystone species because they anchor themselves onto hard surfaces in the water and form reefs which act as habitat for other animals. Belonging to a group of shellfish called bivalves, animals with shells consisting of two hinges, they improve water quality by filtering water as they feed, removing excess nutrients in the process.
Image by Louisiana Sea Grant College Program Louisiana State University , distributed under CC BY 2.0 . Modified by Wenjun Liang, June 18, 2021.
An algal bloom in Lake Erie, September 20, 2017 Photo by Zachary Haslick , Aerial Associates Photography, Inc.
An abundance of nutrients can create dead zones by a process called eutrophication. The excess nutrients are used by algae, creating an algal bloom. When the algae dies and begins to decompose, oxygen in the waters is used up and produces huge amounts of carbon dioxide. The lack of oxygen kills fish and other organisms, while the carbon dioxide lowers the pH, contributing to ocean acidification. Acidification can slow the growth of fish and deteriorate shells of bivalves. - National Ocean Service
Time-lapse of oysters filtering water by Florida Oceanographic Society
Benefits of Oyster Reefs
Ecosystem services provided by shellfish reef ecosystems, retrieved from Restoration Guidelines for Shellfish Reefs.
Oyster reefs are highly beneficial to the local fauna. The shells provide barnacles, mussels, and anemones a hard surface to latch on to. A reef acts as a nursery to the ocean, providing safety for eggs and refuge to juvenile fish and other small animals. These conditions also invite worms, mollusks, and other shellfish to the reefs. Predators looking for a meal wander in as well, such as the oyster drill and oystercatcher. - Horn Point Oyster Hatchery
An established oyster reef can act as a natural breakwater. Breakwaters absorb the energy from waves before they hit land and help mitigate some of the damage storms might cause. Oyster reefs also help prevent erosion of the shoreline which is caused by waves under normal conditions as well.
Image by Scape Studio as part of the Living Breakwaters Rebuild By Design Competition.
After the devastation of Superstorm Sandy, the Living Breakwaters Project was proposed to help protect against erosion and waves from future storms, as well as improve the local ecosystem and social resilience. The project includes building breakwaters along the southern shores of Staten Island, replenishing sand in areas prone to erosion, and restoration of oysters on the breakwaters by the Billion Oyster Project . The Billion Oyster Project was formed in 2014. They are a non-profit that aims to restore one billion oysters to New York Harbor by 2035. - Governor’s Office of Storm Recovery
Difficulties
Oyster shells for oyster "farming", retrieved from NYPL Digital Collections .
Most of the oyster reefs in the world have disappeared, largely due to the harvesting of oysters or the dredging of reefs to create or deepen channels for boats. To recreate oyster reef habitat, a hard substrate is needed as a foundation for the oysters to ‘grab on’ to, because oysters cannot settle on sandy or muddy surfaces. In muddy areas, the sediment can bury the oyster, making it unable to filter water. Hard substrate also allows the oysters to remain stationary and continue its growth. - Morris et al
While oyster shells were traditionally used to build the reefs, other materials can be used as well. Concrete, limestone, and river rock has been used to successfully start a new reef. Concrete and limestone in particular were able to support the highest number of oysters. These substitutes are able to support more oysters than the traditionally used shell substrates, according to at least one study. - Graham et al
Oyster life cycle, retrieved from Restoration Guidelines for Shellfish Reefs.
Oysters can take several years to reach full maturity. During the summer months, female oysters are fertilized before releasing oyster larvae into the water. These free swimming oyster larvae will then find a hard surface to attach themselves onto. They are now referred to as a spat, and will stay in that position for the rest of their lives. For the next 2-3 years, these oysters will keep feeding until they are fully grown, repeating the cycle once again. - Branigan, 2019, p. 5
Ways to Help
If you wish to contribute to the restoration of oysters in the New York Harbor, consider volunteering for the Billion Oyster Project . Activities include shell pile cleanups, cage crafting, and monitoring water quality and local reef health. Because of the damage done to the oyster reefs in our harbor, a lot of work needs to be done to help repair it. While this restoration might take many years, the benefits oyster reefs provide are well worth the effort.
