Stupas
Religious architecture in the east Asian landscape
Introduction
New religions often bring new architecture and Buddhism was no exception. Just as church towers and spires punctuated the Christian landscape, the stupa became part of the Buddhist landscape. In this story we consider their development as they moved eastward into Korean and Japan.
The Stupa—Its Journey to Korea and Japan
The stupa was to become perhaps the most striking of monumental Buddhist architecture in the landscape, yet it has its origins in a simple earthen burial mound. The burial mound is used across the world and India was no exception. After the Buddha’s cremation, his remains were divided and placed under such mounds ( see our Relics story ). These became objects of worship and places of pilgrimage ( see our Pilgrimage story ). The simple mounds soon started to take on a more structural form, using wood, bricks and stone, as seen at Sanchi in northern India, pictured below.
Sanchi stupa was commissioned by the Mauryan emperor Aśoka (r. c.273–232 BC) ( see our Relics story ). It is a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics and the soil mound, and crowned by a chatra—a parasol-like structure symbolising high rank intended to honour and shelter the relics. The elaborately carved gateways were added in the 1st century BC.
Image: Sanchi stupa today. Photograph: John Falconer.
Over the following centuries the stupa became more verticalised and thus more prominent in the landscape: a development also seen in Christian churches with their increasingly high towers and spires. As Buddhism travelled through central Asia with the merchants and diplomats of the Silk Roads, they became markers of a sacred landscape and of places to rest for travellers and pilgrims ( see our Pilgrimage story ). This is clearly seen in the Swat Valley, in northern Pakistan, where stupas are found at the spur of every side valley, such as at Amluk-dara, pictured here.
As can be seen, the dome was made more prominent both by becoming more elongated and also by being placed on several terraces. With the chatra, it is estimated that this stupa would have been 45m tall. Stone-carved scenes from Buddhism [see EXH1 and EXH74 ] were viewed by those circumambulating the dome. Sometimes, the dome was gilded and clothed with votive silks offered by the faithful ( see our Silk story ).
Image: Amluk-dara stupa today, with figure on the top platform next to broken parts of the chatra. Photograph: John Falconer.
As the stupa spread further east into China it was adapted to fit local building techniques, namely the use of wood and overhanging eaves and roofs. Although early stone stupas are found in China, the wooden pagoda form became dominant. And it was this pagoda-stupa that was transmitted to Korea, where the earliest ones were in wood, although no longer extant. In such structures, the dome is depicted below the chatra on the topmost roof.
Image: Śākyamuni stupa (释迦塔) at Foguangsi (佛宫寺) in the oldest extant wooden stupa in China. Built in 1056 by the Khitans, it stands over 67m tall. Photograph from Wikimedia Commons.
Stone stupas are seen in Korea from the sixth century, the oldest being the western stupa at Mireuksa (彌勒寺) [ EXH51 ], recently restored ( see our Arrivals story ). It is now six storeys high and 14.5m tall, but was originally believed to be nine storeys. The chatra has not survived.
Image: Mireuksa stupa, Image by Jjw on Wikipedia CC BY-SA 4.0 [ EXH51 ].
As at Mireuksa, there are also two stone stupa inside the south gate at Bulguksa ( 佛 國 寺) [ EXH43 ]: Seokga stupa (釋迦塔) [ EXH52 ] and Dabo stupa (多寶塔), dating to the early to mid-eighth century. These are both three storeys and retain their chatra, made of stone, but are less than 11m tall. The practice of building two stupas is believed to represent a scene in the very popular Lotus Sutra (妙法蓮華經), which talks about the historical Buddha, Śākyamuni (Seokga), with the Buddha of the past (Dabo), standing beside him to affirm his teachings. Dabo stupa is modelled on wooden architecture. These stupas do not tower in the landscape, as do those in the Swat valley, but are integrated into the temple precinct.
Left image: Dabo stupa at Bulguksa. Right image: Seokga stupa at Bulguksa [EXH52].
By contrast, when the pagoda-stupa came to Japan in the 6th century, the wooden three or five storey stupa became a focal point of the temple as seen in this plan of the temple precinct of Asukadera (飛鳥寺). The pagoda-stupa at Hōryūji (法隆寺) in Japan, dating to the start of the 7th century, at 33m can be seen from a distance rising above the temple walls [ EXH20 ]. However, over time, the pagoda-stupa became less important in Japan and, in some later schools of Buddhism such as Jōdo (浄土) and Zen (禪), they were not used. Others also lost their reliquary function, thus breaking the link from the original stupa in the Buddhist heartland.
Large stone stupas are not seen in Japan: the use of wooden architecture was preferred not least for its ability to withstand earthquakes. But smaller stone stupas, less than 3m tall, are widely seen and developed particular forms and functions. So, for example, one form was called a Hōkyōintō (宝篋印塔) and is found from the thirteenth century. Its original function was to hold a copy of the Hōkyōin — a printed Dhāraṇī Sūtra [see EXH25 , EXH88 ] and is thought to have developed from contemporary Chinese prototypes. Later, this type of small stone stupa was used to mark gravesites. In Korea we also find stone stupas marking gravesites from an early period, such as that built to commemorate the monk Yeomgeo (廉居, d.844) [ EXH19 ].
Image: An example of hōkyōintō at Shikamunijinja (志賀海神社), shrine to three sea deities ( see Okinoshima story ). Image from Wikimedia Commons.
Final Thoughts
As the stupa travelled from northern India, arriving in Korea and Japan almost one thousand years later, it had changed form but largely retained its reliquary function. However, this was also to be lost over time, especially in Japan.
