John Mandeville

Jews in Mandeville represented a mirror image for Christians: Christians depended on them for their religious past, but they also served as how not to practice religion because they had fallen out of favor with God. Theresa Tinkle says that “[t]he loss of the promised land links Christian and Jewish histories” (Tinkle 452). Yet they also represent a past that Christians rewrite and demonize through their claim that the Jews killed Christ. Yet Tinkle also offers up the theory that in putting in the Gog and Magog story and having Alexander lock up the lost ten tribes through God’s will, Mandeville is saying that the Jews did not deserve the promised land in the first place (460). It also exoticizes the Jews in that it places them in the east and paints them as a group that will eventually bring about the fall of Christianity. 

What do you think the importance is of Mandeville specifically making the apocalyptic story of Gog and Magog about Jews?

Mandeville then briefly describes the people in Bacherie, who are “very wicked and very cruel” (159). He says that in Bacherie, there are hippopotamuses as well as many griffons with the head and torso of an eagle and the legs of a lion. The people of Bacherie make many things from the feathers and talons of the giant, strong griffons.

In this chapter, Mandeville describes the land of Prester John, the emperor of India who rules an island called Pentoxoire. He says that the reason India is divided into islands is because the rivers that flow from Paradise run through it, placing Eden closer to India than Europe, a popular opinion in the Middle Ages that influenced the layout of many T-maps. Mandeville goes on to describe the wealth of Prester John, and the emperor’s interactions with the Great Chan. The Great Chan and Prester John both married each other’s daughters as a sign of goodwill. At this point in the chapter, Mandeville reveals that Prester John is Christian and that many people under his rule are as well.

Mandeville continues by describing the great wonders in Prester John’s land, such as the Sandy Sea, which is like a normal sea with fish but has waves of sand instead of water. He also describes one of the rivers that comes from Paradise as made of precious stones, which only flows three days a week. There is also a brief mention of the monstrous races that live in the desert nearby.

Mandeville then recounts the story of Gatholonabez, who is usually identified as the “Old Man of the Mountain.” Gatholonabez dwells in Milstorak and has a castle on a mountain which he built walls around and made beautiful with animals, gardens, and fountains. Under three of these fountains, Gatholonabez put pipes through which wine, honey, and milk flow, just as in Paradise. In this enclosure, he locks up young knights and tells them it is Paradise after drugging them. He then makes these knights go and kill people that are against him, telling the knights that they will go to an even greater Paradise if they do this. He finishes this retelling of the Assassin story by outlining the fall of Gathalonobez, who was eventually killed by rich men and his Paradise destroyed.

In this chapter, John Mandeville discovers what he refers to as the Perilous Valley. He explains that the valley is full of devils and that it is said to be one of the entrances to hell. Both Pagans and Christians come to this valley to seek the treasures that lie within; however, few return as many are strangled by the devil. When Mandeville passed through this valley he saw "precious stones and jewels in abundance" but was careful to never touch anything so that he wouldn’t be deceived by the devil (167). He states that he was able to pass through the valley safely thanks to his devotion to God.

After passing through the valley, Mandeville encounters a series of islands, the first of which is full of giants who are cannibals. The next island that Mandeville describes is inhabited by "wicked "women who have witch-like qualities and can kill someone by staring at them in the eyes (170). On another island that he witnesses the men lie with another woman on their wedding night because they believe that taking your wife’s virginity is a dangerous task. On the next island, Mandeville explains that the people believe that when a child is born it comes into the world to “work, pain, and sorrow” and when it dies it goes into paradise where “one lives in joy and abundance” (170). On the last island that Mandeville visits he states that men marry their wives, sisters, and other relatives.

At the end of the chapter, Mandeville notes that throughout India he has noticed an abundance of crocodiles and other unfamiliar animals. He explains that there are many giraffes, chameleons, snakes, white lions, and more (172). He seems to be interested in the vast variety of animals and how they differ from the ones in his country.

Throughout this section Mandeville struggles with difference and monstrous races through his descriptions of the islands that he encounters. He also uses biblical references to explain where he is at this point of his travels. He uses landmarks such as the "River Phison" and "the mountains that last almost four leagues" to explain where the Perilous Valley lies making it difficult to pinpoint where he is on a map (166).

How does the way Mandeville portrays monstrous races in this section differ from others? How are these monstrous races connected to Christianity?

In chapter 32, John Mandeville introduces another series of islands. First, he talks about the island of Bragmey and its inhabitants. The author describes their way of living and lists put all the good virtues that they possess. The writing emphasizes that although the islanders are non-Christians, they have achieved goodness to the utmost by following the natural laws. Mandeville claims that the inhabitants believe in God in their own way, and God accepts their beliefs as well (172-173). Then, the author introduces another two islands, Oxidrate, and Gynosophe, whose inhabitants are also virtuous and maintain good customs. 

Mandeville also discusses the interactions between these islanders and King Alexander the Great. First, Alexander wants to conquer the island of Bragmey, but the people there tell him that they have nothing he wants and persuade him to leave them alone. Then, Alexander comes to Oxidrate and Gynosphe and makes generous offers to the inhabitants. The latter responds that they do not need anything from him. The two stories show how the islanders treat one of the most influential figures in Europe as a normal person. They are neither threatened by Alexander’s military power, nor do they consider him superior in any way. On the contrary, they teach him a lesson and warn him of his ambition and arrogance. Following this part, Mandeville restates his belief that “God always loves those who love him and serve humbly in virtue and loyalty…...one ought not to despise any earthly people for their diverse laws” (175). He declares that the inhabitants’ virtuous behaviors earn them God’s love as well as King Alexander’s respect.

Then, Mandeville leads the readers into Prester John’s kingdom, where all kinds of marvels exist. The author introduces how Prester John got his name in a church of Egypt and explains the differences between Christian practices there and in his hometown.

Do you think Mandeville has changed his attitude towards non-Christian religions from the beginning to the end of the book?

Mandeville describes the eastern part of Prester John’s land and the island Taprobane. On this island, he describes a local king, elected by the people and how there are two summers and two winters. Next he describes two islands: Orille and Argite, where the Red Sea is separated by the Ocean Sea. On Traprobane there are are mountains of gold guarded by dog sized ants. The people of these island use various animals to trick the ants. Beyond the mountains, there is nothing but darkness. Mandeville describes how “east” of this land is Paradise, the same which Adam and Eve lived in. Mandeville claims he didn’t physically see it, but he claims he has heard from wise men that it survived the great flood, because it reaches up to the moon. It’s surrounded by a great wall, and no mortals can enter. The Ganges flows from the center, and flows through India. The Nilus flows through Ethiopia and Egypt. The Tigres and Euprahtes also come from Paradise. Only those with God’s grace can enter.

Starting on page 595, Lochrie discusses the section where Mandeville explains his interactions with a Sultan about religion. Interestingly, when the sultan insults what was then modern Christianity, he is not considered lesser, rather, he is held to be correct. Along with this, he also includes how interested he is that the people in the east have mechanical birds. Mandeville describes how the east is a utopia that compensates all of the issues that exist in Europe. Basically, Mandeville wants the audience to believe that the east contains the necessary pieces to create a utopia, but this does not account for the disrespect for the Jewish people. Unlike the “Saracens” the Jewish people Mandeville encounters are not treated with any kind of respect, rather they are never given any positive light. It may be worth exploring how Mandeville views the East. When compared to the section about how to get to Paradise, it describes how getting to Paradise requires going east, but not physically, which creates a problem. According to Mandeville, the West does not have to move East physically, it could also imply that they must move east in metaphysical ways or through things like religion. 

Is there a deeper meaning to referencing supernatural phenomenons or is Mandeville merely demonstrating more examples of a marvels?

In this concluding chapter, Mandeville describes a few “islands” that travelers would likely encounter if they returned to their homes via a westward journey. He notes that it would be possible to continue to the east for a return journey (thereby circumnavigating the globe), but reports that few do this due to the hardship of the journey.

The first “island” Mandeville describes is named Casson (Gansu), one of the Great Khan’s 12 provinces which Mandeville describes as the best kingdom in the region save Cathay. There are reportedly numerous cities full of riches, as well as many spices and forests of chestnut trees.

Next Mandeville describes the kingdom of Byboth (Tibet). The people in this country sleep in tents made of black felt, rather than houses. He briefly describes their greatest city, where “the pope of their law” resides and where no one would kill a person or an animal out of religious reverence (182). Furthermore, Mandeville places heavy emphasis on their death rites. The greatest honor for one’s father is a ritual in which the body of the father is brought to the top of a mountain and ritually dismembered. The various pieces of the body are thrown to the vultures and other birds that are attracted to the corpse, while the skull of the father is saved as a drinking chalice for the son. The ritual is finished by a feast in which the son allows each of his closest friends a taste of his father’s head.

The final island is an unnamed region, which is also under the Great Khan and a region of great wealth. All the men there allow their fingernails to grow very long, while the women bind their feet so that they are much smaller than they would normally be. A rich man in this kingdom is fed five meals a day by his ladies in waiting, who sing songs while he is fed. The descriptions here are lavish, and convey a palpable sense of wealth and prosperity.

The chapter ends with a mirroring of the prologue, in which Mandeville notes that he has not written down every wonder in the lands he described, so that others might have the pleasure of discovering and writing down new things when they have their own travels. The account ends, fittingly, with a prayer and praise for the Christian god.

Akbari, Suzanne Conklin. "Chapter 1: The Shape of the World." Idols in the East, Cornell University Press, 2009, pp. 20-66.

Artist unknown. Dish. 14th century. Artstor, library.artstor.org/asset/AMICO_MINIAPOLIS_103823991

Bowl with Leopard and Palmette Decoration. 1300-1353. Artstor, library.artstor.org/asset/ISLAMIC_DB_1031314880

Illustrated Book of Islands; Sri Lanka (Insularium illustratum Henrici Martelli Germani; Taprobane ou Ceylan). c. 1480-1500. Artstor, library.artstor.org/asset/AWSS35953_35953_3094521

Keilo, Jack. "Hereford Map, Jerusalem again as centre and the Translatio Imperii." Open Edition, 6 June 2018, centrici.hypotheses.org/584. Accessed 2 Dec. 2019.

Lochrie, Karma. “Provincializing Medieval Europe: Mandeville's Cosmopolitan Utopia.” PMLA, vol. 124, no. 2, 2009, pp. 592–599. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/25614302.

Lomperis, Linda. “Medieval Travel Writing and the Question of Race,” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies, 31:1, 2001.

Mandeville, John, and Iain M. Higgins. The Book of John Mandeville, with Related Texts. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2011. Print.

Speculum Virginum , fol. 19'.. late XIV.. Artstor, library.artstor.org/asset/AWSS35953_35953_31694102

Tinkle, Theresa. “God's Chosen Peoples: Christians and Jews in The Book of John Mandeville.” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, vol. 113, no. 4, 2014, pp. 443–471. JSTOR,  www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/jenglgermphil.113.4.0443 .