Spinach

1. Spinach is believed to have been domesticated in Persia (present-day Iran) some 2,000 years ago. In fact, the name derives from the Persian word meaning "green hand." The geographical spread of the food is thought to have occurred much later in history, as evidence doesn't show its appearance in ancient Greece or Rome.
2. 4th century - consumption in Mesopotamia, as evidenced in the oldest available records
3. 7th century - arrives to China via Nepal
4. 10th century - first mention of the crop in the Muslim territories of the Mediterranean (North Africa)
5. 12th century - arrives in continental Europe, as evidence reveals its presence in Moorish Spain
6. 12th century onwards - spreads throughout Europe, and
7. Comes to North America along with the early colonists

*above numbers correspond to map

Summary - Spinach spread in two directions, as follows:

• To Southern and Eastern Asia, and
• To Africa, the Mediterranean, Northern Europe, and finally, the Americas

• This map, from the  Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations , shows us the production quantities of spinach (yearly average from 2010-2018, in tonnes).
• China (21.73 million tonnes/year) easily leads the world in production, as the United States (351,176 tonnes/year), Japan (250,698 tonnes/year), and Turkey (217,428 tonnes/year) follow behind.

• With this in mind, the United States imports frozen spinach from the following countries (shown in table below from the  USDA )

• Meanwhile, the U.S. imports fresh or chilled spinach at a much lower rate (shown below from the  USDA ) as they tend to rely more on domestic production for this type.

• Given the United States' reliance on domestic production for fresh spinach, it is important to explore the ways in which the crop gets to our local stores, as well as exploring an American-based company's approach.

"Founded in 1851, Dole Food Company is one of the world’s leading producers, marketers and distributors of fresh fruit and fresh vegetables. [They] provide retail, wholesale and foodservice customers around the world with a diverse portfolio of the finest, high-quality fresh fruit and vegetable products"

- 2017 Company S-1 Filing with the SEC 

• For our purposes here, we will focus on Dole's Fresh Vegetable Division, which supplies fresh vegetables and packaged salads within North America.
• Dole was chosen here for a couple of reasons. First of all, the majority of fresh spinach consumed in the United States is sourced domestically. Thus, it seemed fitting to select a well-known American-based company whose products can easily be found at our nearby grocery stores. Dole was also a great fit because it has a major operation in California, the largest spinach-producing state, which had accounted for an overwhelming majority of spinach production in the United States as of 2019 (see table below).

• Escherichia coli O157:H7 linked to fresh bagged spinach results in 204 illnesses, including 104 hospitalizations, 31 cases of a serious complication, and 3 deaths.
• The FDA advised that consumers avoid all fresh spinach until deemed safe, which caused stores and restaurants to remove their stock immediately. 15 days later, the FDA assured consumers that the product was safe as before.
• Dole, as a primary culprit in the outbreak, would struggle to maintain their reputation and profitability at the time. A  USDA report  stated that "total retail expenditures on bagged spinach declined $201.9 million in the first 68 weeks after the FDA announcement." While the market eventually returned to normal, Dole still had to find ways to regain the public trust by improving their safety standards and protocols (discussed more in later sections).

• Dole has also faced a number of lawsuits in their company history, many of which were related to unsafe working conditions, workplace discrimination, etc.
• One such case, for instance, was settled for foreign farm workers who claimed they were injured due to agricultural chemicals they were exposed to in their countries.
• Today, as you will see later, Dole is making efforts to ensure an extremely ethical environment, especially here in the United States. Furthermore, they have been more transparent with respect to their business dealings and supply chain.

"We adhere to the highest ethical standards and conduct business openly and honestly within the spirit and letter of the law." - Dole Code of Conduct

For the purposes of production, we will look into the common practices in the highest spinach-producing state, California. Dole has a major spinach farm in Monterrey County, an optimal growing location along the central coast.

• The ways in which spinach is produced varies depending on the type and leaf size. More specifically, the crop yield will either contain smaller/younger leaves (baby spinach) or larger/mature leaves. Baby spinach is often preferred for fresh market clipped and bagged, whereas larger leaf sizes are used for fresh market bunched or frozen. Fresh market clipped and bag is the leader in production in California and is the method used by Dole as well.
• Spinach requires certain climates to ensure the best possible growth. Its seeds can grow in temperatures ranging from 35°F to 85°F, but 45°F to 75°F is preferable. On that note, growth will occur quickest at temperatures between 60°F and 65°F.
• In California, all commercially grown yields are hybrids. This allows for the prevention of diseases, such as downy mildew.
• Unlike many other states, California employs an extremely large density of seeds. Baby spinach, for instance, is planted on 80-inch beds with about 4 million seeds per acre, and only taking 21-40 days until harvest. It then makes sense as to why baby spinach is preferable from a commercial standpoint because its production times are so small.
• Spinach can be produced using a variety of soil types, but more sandy soils are preferred because they allow for good drainage.
• As with most fields, spinach is sprinkler irrigated. Baby spinach, as a major commercial product, is watered using solid-set sprinklers because these systems have the lowest labor requirement. These irrigations occur frequently for short periods of time. It is extremely important that the crop does not become overwatered or saturated, as this can lead to disease or rotting.
• Fertilizers and pesticides, like with most large-scale crops, has become commonplace for spinach production. Spinach, however, is moderately fertilized when compared to others, such as lettuce. The rate of fertilization varies depending on the types of spinach and soil, but it is usually recommended that 20 to 40 pounds of phosphorous fertilizer be used per acre. As for pesticides, weed management is extremely important given the high density of the fields, so herbicides and fumigation is utilized before planting begins. Because most spinach is prewashed and packaged, like Dole's, insect management is also crucial.
• Finally, fresh market spinach, that is bagged and not bunched, is typically harvested using a machine that clips the leaves off the plants and loads them into bins for transport (see below).

• Within hours of harvesting, the spinach is taken to a nearby processing plant (Dole's is located Soledad, near the Monterrey County farm). If the process does not begin within hours, the spinach is stored/cooled until the start.
• Dole's Soledad plant is a highly hygienic environment, as it follows the strict measures laid out in the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP). These standards require that they analyze/test their products at every stage.
• At the plant, the spinach is washed, dried, and weighed (see video below). Then, a proportional amount is placed into a number of bags. Dole uses a technologically advanced "breathable" bag, which preserves the spinach and maintains freshness without using preservatives.

• The above video reveals the stringent technological process, but also the large amounts of water that are used for processing spinach. Some companies, like Dole, have recognized the need to reduce water use at these facilities and their farms. Dole, as an example, has been making progress when it comes water recycling. They have begun rolling out water reuse systems, which uses up to 80% less water than normal systems.

Company Goal: "Achieve 100% optimized water practices in Dole-managed farms and packing facilities by 2025."

• From a labor standpoint, Dole's Soledad processing plant offers free English and high school classes in the afternoons, along with training to improve machine operation skills. Unlike some other companies we've encountered, Dole appears to be committed to developing their employees' careers, providing safe working conditions, offering fair/legal pay, and ensuring equality at all of their various locations.

"Everywhere Dole operates, we have policies that respect human rights and the International Labor Organization (ILO) conventions. And we take steps not only to support our employees with education, training and good working conditions, but also to positively impact their families and the wider communities, too."

• After the spinach is bagged and the bags are sorted/boxed appropriately, they should be stored while awaiting trucks for transport.
• Because spinach is perishable and can easily decay when exposed to warm temperatures, it must be stored around 32°F and at high humidity levels (greater than 95%). This will also ensure that its nutritional value will not be lost along the way to the store.
• Dole utilizes state-of-the-art refrigeration transport technologies, which allows for the product to remain at optimal freshness throughout the distribution process.
• Once the truck arrives at the store, the spinach is placed on the shelf, where it has a typical life of 14-18 days.

• Dole partners with Transplace, a transportation software and logistics management company, in order to smoothly distribute its products. While these services are more broadly applied to all types of products, it is still important to understand just how much food companies, like Dole, rely on the strategic and technological services for success of its supply chain.

“The partnership Dole Food has with Transplace has proven to work very well and has assisted in our efforts of contracting for cost competitive, service-minded and capacity committed transportation services to move our North American over the road motor carrier freight network. As Dole continues to focus on the best service for our customers, the Transplace sourcing engagements have proven over the years to be an enabling solution and an important part of our strategy for success.”

Ulises J. Carrillo, Vice President, Global Logistics, Dole Food.

• Lent - religious observance that traditionally begins on Ash Wednesday and lasts for forty days. Many churches recognize this seasonal period in remembrance of the forty days and nights of fasting that Jesus endured while in the desert. 
• A 1983 Code states that all Roman Catholics older than 14, including my grandmother, are expected to avoid consuming meat on Ash Wednesday and every Friday throughout Lent. For individuals between the ages of 18 and 59, they are required to fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday (Friday before Easter), and are recommended to voluntarily fast on other weekdays during Lent.
• As a child and still today, my grandmother takes immense religious pride in a meal that contains no meat and is typically eaten in observance of Good Friday, a day which commemorates the crucifixion and death of Jesus.
• Her Lenten meal (below), as she calls it, contains the following: torta de huevo (egg fritters), red chile, pinto beans, and spinach of course.

• She obtained the recipe from her grandmother and mother, who would grow all the ingredients in their small New Mexican town of Corona. Today, my grandmother relies on the local markets for the red chile and beans, but ventures to the nearby grocery store for the fresh spinach (Smith's is located near her home, where Dole products are shelved)
• Nonetheless, this meal gives my grandmother fond memories of her childhood, in which the dish provided an opportunity for her entire family to partake in religious get-togethers, staying up all night praying the rosary and eating.
• When she moved away from her childhood home, she knew she had to carry on the tradition of her mother and grandmother. This is precisely what she did, as the meal continues to make its presence felt in her kitchen and the stomachs of the family today.

• Spinach is a highly nutritional leafy green, containing large amounts of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, which help us fight diseases and improve our overall health.
• Originating in Persia 2,000 years ago, the vegetable travelled east to China and west to Africa, Europe, and finally the Americas.
• China is the world leader in spinach production by a significant margin. The United States relies on the country for imports of dried or frozen spinach, but sources the majority of its fresh spinach domestically.
• Dole, an American-based company and one of the largest producers of fresh vegetables in the world, was thus an important example to explore. There ethical problems of the past, such as the E. coli outbreak, is also notable when learning about how they are making efforts to change today.
• We then explored spinach production, baby spinach especially, which revealed the typical growth processes in California, the largest spinach-producing state.
• Processing, the next stage, employed technologically advanced and hygienic machinery in order to properly wash, dry, sort, weigh, and bag the product. This stage also revealed Dole's efforts to optimize their water use and improve employee relations.
• Distribution is extremely important for spinach, as proper storage must be ensured. Dole's use of refrigeration transport technologies, along with their partnerships with others like Transplace, have made this stage relatively smooth.
• Finally, spinach can be used in a variety of dishes, such as my grandma's Lentin meal, and consumption is the final node on this commodity food chain.