First Sino-Japanese War

1. Introduction

The First Sino-Japanese War, a pivotal conflict that unfolded between 1894 and 1895, altered the geopolitical landscape of East Asia. This paper delves into the multifaceted dimensions of the war, including its origins, the escalation to full-scale war, the diplomatic tensions and international involvements. Also, the immediate and long-term consequences of the war are examined, highlighting the territorial losses for China and the significant terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Additionally, the paper reviews how the war is remembered and commemorated in China and Japan today, reflecting on its impact on contemporary national identities and international relations.

2. Origins of the Conflict

The origin of the First Sino-Japanese War can be traced back to 1860s. Due to the increasing Japanese influence, the Qing Dynasty felt that its long-standing special relationship with Joseon was threatened (Greve and Levy 151). The tension reached a breaking point with the outbreak of the Donghak Peasant Rebellion in January 1894. The Donghak Peasant Rebellion was caused by huge social and political inequalities, along with the oppressive taxation imposed on Korean peasants. As the Qing Dynasty, which had historically held power over Korea, saw the uprising and Japan's desire to assist reform in Korea as a threat to their own domain of influence, these internal conflicts within Joseon became a catalyst for the conflict. Since the Qing Dynasty wanted to assert its dominance and Japan wanted to increase its influence, both countries' subsequent military interventions in the Korean Peninsula sparked a war that was seemingly about assisting Korea but was actually motivated by larger imperialistic ambitions in the region.

3.Path to Full-Scale War

The First Sino-Japanese War turned to be a full-scale battle when China sent troop contingent under the leadership of Yuan Shikai to suppress the Donghak Peasant Rebellion and limit the growing Japanese influence in Korea. In response, Japan sent its army to Korea, capturing Gojong in Seoul and implanting reformist faction in power. In July 1894, Japanese and Chinese first had direct engagements, escalating hostilities into a direct military confrontation.

The subsequent battles were marked by a series of Japanese victories. The pivotal Battle of the Yalu River took place in September 1894, resulting in a decisive victory for Japan and highlighting the military strength of its naval forces (Herbert, 513-515). This battle was particularly significant as it pitted the newly modernized Japanese fleet against the Beiyang Navy, which was part of China's first modernized naval force. Despite substantial investments in its ships and training, the Beiyang Navy was overwhelmed by the superior tactics and coordination of the Japanese forces. This victory was further cemented in November when Japanese crushed the remaining Beiyang navy and expelled Chinese troops from Korean Peninsula. The conflict then expanded into other territories, with combat spreading to Manchuria, Shandong, and Taiwan from December 1894 to March 1895. These underscored Japan's emergence as a formidable military power and represented a significant realignment of power in East Asia. The Treaty of Shimonoseki, which concluded the war in April 1895, further solidified this shift, ceding Taiwan, the Pescadores Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsular to Japan and recognizing Korean independence, thereby diminishing China's influence.

4. Diplomatic Tensions and International Involvement

Before the begin of the First Sino-Japanese War, the international context was determined by the roles of Western powers in East Asia. European countries had established various spheres of influence and observed the balance of power in the region. They wanted to ensure that there was no single power dominating the area. This concern for equilibrium led to the Triple Intervention (Iklé 122-124). After the war was concluded in 1895 by the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Japan gaining Taiwan, the Pescadores Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsular. With Russia, Germany, and France stepped in after Japan's victory, Japan had to return several regions to China. They argued that Japan’s control would disrupt regional stability. The treaty negotiations indicated the burgeoning imperial power of Japan, and commanded increased respect and wariness from Western nations and China(Greve 151-152). The involvement of Western powers foreshadowed future international tensions. 

This conflict significantly altered the perception of both Japan and China on the world stage. China was seen as a declining power, unable to protect its interests and sovereignty against more modernized forces. In contrast, Japan was viewed as a rising power and a significant global player, capable of adopting Western military advancements and exerting its influence in East Asia. The war and its resolution through the treaty negotiations marked the beginning of a new era in East Asian international relations.

5. The immediate consequences of the war

In addition to the contents of The Treaty of Shimonoseki mentioned above, it also recognized the full and complete independence of Korea, thereby removing it from the tributary system of China, which had implications for the regional balance of power. Moreover, the treaty included provisions that opened up more Chinese ports to Japanese trade, and China had to pay a substantial indemnity in silver to Japan, which further weakened the already strained Chinese economy.

The impacts were profound and long-lasting. The significant territorial concessions and the indemnity payment exacerbated internal unrest in China and contributed to a surge in nationalist sentiment. The perceived weakness of the Qing Dynasty and the encroachment of foreign powers led to the Boxer Rebellion at the turn of the century. Furthermore, the victory emboldened Japan in its imperialistic pursuits, setting a precedent for its actions in the Second Sino-Japanese War, which would erupt in the late 1930s as part of a broader conflict that would engulf the entire Pacific region. These conflicts, directly linked to the aftermath of the First Sino-Japanese War, signified a continuing struggle over sovereignty, national pride, and power dynamics in East Asia.

6. The war's significance in the long term

The First Sino-Japanese War marked a pivotal moment in the history of East Asia, which had profound long-term implications. For the first time in history, or at least since the Mongol invasions, the war flipped the traditional regional order on its head. China has maybe only recently regained some of its former centrality. This shift in regional dynamics saw the emergence of Japan as a significant imperial power and heralded a period of decline for China, which it would not begin to reverse until the late twentieth century. This seismic shift in power dynamics set the stage for the eventual re-emergence of China as a central player in regional and global politics, a process that has unfolded over the course of the last century.

Historically, the First Sino-Japanese War is always regarded as a significant demarcation point between premodern and modern East Asia. While the Opium Wars are often cited as the beginning of modern history in the region, the outcomes of the First Sino-Japanese War were arguably more transformative. The conflict led directly to the collapse of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea and precipitated the downfall of the Qing Dynasty in China, effectively ending millennia of dynastic rule in both countries (SONG, N 1036). The war's results catalyzed a series of reforms, fundamentally reshaping the political and social landscape of East Asia. The followed modernization and westernization efforts were direct responses to the challenges posed by the war and the desire to prevent future foreign domination. Thus, the First Sino-Japanese War is not only regarded as a defining moment in the geopolitical reconfiguration of East Asia, but also as a key historical turning point marking the region's tumultuous transition into the modern era.

7. Memory and Commemoration in Contemporaneous Relations

The commemorations of the First Sino-Japanese War in China and Japan today can serve as useful insights into the respective countries' current socio-political situations and historical narratives. In China, the war is often memorialized as a painful reminder of the "century of humiliation," a period where foreign powers, including Japan, took advantage of China's weakness. Thus, the official memorials in China tend to emphasize national resilience and the eventual triumph of the Chinese spirit. This story is always connected with the larger history of China's transformation from a struggling country to an internationally significant one. Public perception is largely influenced by these official narratives, often rousing a sense of patriotism and grievance against foreign exploitation.

In Japan, the memory of the First Sino-Japanese War is often eclipsed by the events of the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II, which hold a more prominent place in the national consciousness due to their more recent occurrence and larger scale. Being a symbol of Japan's rise as a modern nation and a colonial force, the First Sino-Japanese War is regarded as a source of pride for the country, fitting into a larger history of late 19th-century Japan's increasing industrialization and modernization. However, public perceptions are complex and varied, with a growing awareness and reflection upon the consequences of Japan's imperialist past, particularly among the younger generations who are more likely to engage with these historical events critically(Kenley 5-6).

Works Cited:

1. Greve, A. Q., & Levy, J. S. (2018). Power Transitions, Status Dissatisfaction, and War: The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. Security Studies, 27(1), 148–178.  https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2017.1360078 

2. Herbert, H. A. (1894). The Fight off the Yalu River. The North American Review, 159(456), 513–528. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25103421

3. Iklé, F. W. (1967). The Triple Intervention. Japan’s Lesson in the Diplomacy of Imperialism. Monumenta Nipponica, 22(1/2), 122–130.  https://doi.org/10.2307/2383226 

4. Greve, A. Q., & Levy, J. S. (2018). Power Transitions, Status Dissatisfaction, and War: The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. Security Studies, 27(1), 148–178.  https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2017.1360078 

5. SONG, N. (2017). The Journey towards “No Man’s Land”: Interpreting the China-Korea Borderland within Imperial and Colonial Contexts. The Journal of Asian Studies, 76(4), 1035–1058.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/26572403 

6. Kenley, D. L. (2009). History and Memory: The Role of War Memorials in China and Japan. Education About Asia, Volume 14:1 (Spring 2009): History, Literature, and the Construction of “Memory” in Asia, 5–11.  https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/history-and-memory-the-role-of-war-memorials-in-china-and-japan/