Uruk

The ancient city of Uruk, starting its development from the late 5th millennium BC, existing up to the third century AD during the Sassanid period, could be called the 'first city in human history,' depending on who you ask. The site is located in Southern Mesopotamia, which is modern-day Iraq. It started out as (at least) two settlements on the bank of the Euphrates river, which eventually grew into a larger city around 3500 BC.

By the late fourth and early third millennia BC, the city was around 2.5 square kilometers in size. (Cruseman 2019, 12 & Nissen 2019, 87)

During excavations in the 1930s, directed by Julius Jordan, a deep trench was dug in the center of the city, going 19.6 meters deep, discovering sixteen architectural layers. These layers represent a period of roughly eight hundred years. This made it possible to study the settlements belonging from the Late Ubaid to Late Uruk periods. Unfortunately, the excavated area was too small in size for an in-depth study, but what was determined was that the earliest settlers built on thick layers of reeds, presumably to create elevations in the swampy surroundings. (van Ess 2019, 78-79)

For the early Uruk period, two central districts can be identified. The Anu district and the Eanna district, who presumably originated from their own respective settlement on either side of the riverbank, long before the rise of Uruk, which eventually grew together. Although the Eanna precinct is about as old as the city itself, the majority of the structures excavated and presented here, are from 3600-3000 BC.

The Eanna district, also called the Eanna precinct within its walls, is on the eastern side of the (old) river. The wall encloses an area that is presumed to be about 9 hectares in size. Unfortunately only a third has been excavated. Large structures have been found, that have been interpreted as temples. However, it is possible they served multiple functions. Large gatherings could be held with a central figure, the "leader of the assembly", which is named on the "List of Professions". (Nissen 2019, 90)

A remarkable find within the precinct was a square garden, named the Great Courtyard, among the numerous special buildings there. This garden was likely an orchard and had its own water supply.

A lot of special buildings were uncovered in the precinct. The walls were found only 40 centimeters high and the hearths that were found within the buildings did not show much sign of use. In one of the buildings (building E), clay fragments with cylinder seal impressions were discovered in a square basin. The hypothesis came to be that these buildings, because of their particular dimensions, existed to hold gatherings of large groups of people, who had something to do with administrative functions, perhaps opening up sealed goods.

Constructing such buildings must have required enormous effort, both logistical and organizational. The standard building materials were, as per usual in Mesopotamia, rectangular air-dried mud bricks. What was more unusual was stone, the material mainly used for the Limestone Building (hence the name) on the eastern corner area.

The most innovative building to be found in the precinct has to be the Stone Cone building on the western side. It stood on a terrace made of clay and had a foundation of stone walls. The walls contained colored stone cones, creating a mosaic shell. Inside the building, a water tank was found, with the floors being made of water-resistant pavement, suggesting a religious rite involving a large quantity of fluid. Postholes were found, possibly indicating standards for flagpoles, made with reed bundles. A remained of such a bundle has been found. This one is dated from around 3500 BC and is bound with bronze bands.

The mosaic cones return in their most impressive forms in the Pillar Hall in the center of the precinct. The cones were ceramic and were roughly 8 to 10 centimeters long and 1.2 to 1.8 centimeters thick and were painted black, white, and red. (Eichmann 2019, 100-104)

The western district called Anu, seems to contain the oldest structure excavated to date. Remnants of a tripartite building, containing a large central hall with rooms on the side wings, belong to the Ubaid period, the end of the fifth millennium BC. Close to it are the remnants of a clay platform that is thought to form the base of a terrace that was raised up to 12 meters high. Another Tripartite building, dating from around 3450 BC, stood on top of it, with a height of 3.4 meters preserved today, having a ground plan of 385 square meters. The structure had whitewashed walls, with a central room containing podiums and a side room with cupboards. Several staircases have been found that led up to the roof. The structure is more commonly known as the White Temple.

Research indicated that there have been previous structures at this particular spot, which have been built over many times. The function of this so-called Anu Ziggurat is not certain, but it seems highly likely that it was a religious one, and is likely a predecessor to the later Mesopotamian Ziggurats. This structure, like the buildings of the Eanna Precinct, needed a great organization of laborers to realize. Perhaps this is where the origin of sociocultural changes, like social hierarchy, lies. (Eichmann 2019, 97-99)

These two districts, Anu and Eanna, together formed the city's religious and administrative center. To have these places located in the actual topographical center of Uruk, one could say it formed the city's political heart. (Eichmann 2019, 97)

Outlined on the map above is the City Wall, according to legend built by the famous king Gilgamesh at the beginning of the third millennium BC, although the precise date is uncertain. The wall has excavated in the 1930s and was only a small project. The wall is 9 kilometers long and 5 to 9 meters thick and was repeatedly restored. It was made up of parallel lines strengthened by bastions. (van Ess 2019, 80)

Looking at the city wall in relation to the temple areas, the central role of the temple only becomes more evident, as we can see the clear contrast between the outer wall, the border, of the city and the temple complexes, the heart. The central position of the temple is hard to ignore, and comparing this fact to the modern day, the central position of the government as the heart of the state still survives to this day.

Another major structure from a later period was excavated on the west side of the city. The palace of Sin-kashid, king of Uruk during the Old Babylonian period (ca. 1865-1833 BC). It was uncovered during the campaigns in the early 1960s by Arndt von Haller and Heinrich J. Lenzen.

Like many of the old structures, only the foundations have survived. The palace has shorter sides which are 102 and 116 meters long, and long sides of roughly 142 meters in length. In total, the structure reached a size of roughly 15,500 square meters. The foundations are made of sun-dried mudbricks, with the base above it of fired bricks which have a stamped inscription of Sin-kashid on them. Charred ceiling beams and socket boxes filled with ash hint at a large fire that destroyed the palace.

The interior seems to be divided into separate areas accessed by various halls, courtyards, and narrow corridors, which was probably only meant for the servants. The large courtyard on the eastern side is one of the largest known of the Old Babylonian period. The central room was set apart by six columns, which is rare in Mesopotamian palaces. In this area, several artifacts were found, like a bronze dagger, lumps of copper, an ingot, marble and alabaster mace heads, and clay tablets.

To the north, in room 72, school texts were found, among which were lists of signs, multiplication tables, and a hymn to a deity. This suggests there was a scribal school within the palace. The area this room was in was only accessible through a few doors, so it was easily guarded. Other valuable goods were found together here, suggesting this was also a storage area. Room 35 in the southwestern part contained over 300 Old Babylonian texts, carefully placed in a pit. The majority of the texts were administrative documents. However, there were also two clay cylinders, one of them lists the inventory of the Nanna temple's jewelry that was stored in the palace, suggesting the valuable goods were taken out of the temple, perhaps for safekeeping. (Fugert & Sanati-Muller 2019, 223-230)

A relatively small but nonetheless interesting discovery made this century was this clay cone with a royal inscription about Naram-sin, king of Uruk. This is not the same Naram-sin as the one from Akkad, nor from Assur, nor from Eshnunna. This king seems to be entirely new to the records. The cone has been deciphered by Eva von Dassow. According to von Dassow, the cone was likely found somewhere between the excavations of 1913 and 1938, but it was never studied or made public before. (von Dassow 2009, 2-8)

A nail fragment bearing Naram-sin's name was also found, likely within the Eanna precinct. These two objects are the only ones mentioning this supposed king of Uruk. One could wonder if Naram-sin actually did the deeds presented on these objects, or whether he was actually king at all, since we have never heard from him before, and these are the only two objects to represent him. This raises the question of whether the people of Uruk could simply claim false kingship, and if such a thing happened more often. The fact that the nail was likely found within the Eanna precinct, an important religious center, could give it a claim towards legitimacy, but more research is needed to give a more concrete picture. Perhaps more of these artifacts can still be found in the same area. Naram-sin of Uruk could be dated around the same time as the rule of Enlil-bani of Isin, who ruled around 1862-1839 BC.

A large and important feature of Mesopotamian life was of course agriculture. Uruk, being located in Southern Mesopotamia, had to rely on irrigation for the cultivation of her crops. Archaeological evidence has shown that Uruk used furrow irrigation, in which you direct water into small canals and ditches. Only the bottom and sides of the furrows had water, so this is ideal for more sensitive crops, but also for orchards. Gardens within a city could also be watered this way. Within Uruk's city wall, field furrows and canals have been identified, presumably for such a purpose.

Larger and smaller canals were located outside the city, used for the irrigation. (M. Bagg 2019, 116-118)

In the present day, the mound of Uruk is situated about 20 kilometers east of the current Euphrates. According to Jennifer Pournelle, the city was founded at a branch of the old Euphrates. The river shifting its main course to the west is a large reason for Uruk's eventual abandonment for several centuries in the middle of the second millennium BC.

The southwest, where the river was located, was where the main irrigation agriculture took place. The other side of the city on the northeast, however, was more barren. There was vegetation back in the late fifth millennium, but subsequent aridification of the area led to crops being unable to get cultivated. (Bruckner 2019, 323-325)

To conclude, the city of Uruk is a fascinating site with many interesting finds. Some have been known for a long time, like the White Temple and the administrative and religious buildings of the Eanna Precinct; the palace of Sin-kashid which was also used as a scribal school, and the irrigation system. We know the tools and artifacts that people used for religious and administrative purposes, like the reed bundles for flagpoles, which helps us reconstruct the lives these people led. Other finds have been more obscure, like the finds of the unknown king Naram-Sin. This shows that there is a lot more work and research that could be done on the site as a whole, because the 'first' city of Uruk has much more to show us than we could even begin to imagine.