The First Opium War (1839-1842)

"Opium, along with tea, coffee, tobacco, and sugar-all of which 'hooked' consumers in one way or another-was a significant item in the developing worldwide consumer market" (Burbank and Cooper, CH10, 294). Britain, through the East India Company, relied on selling opium to the Chinese market. This caused an epidemic in China, which led to the Chinese government shutting down the opium trade. This drew the ire of Britain to open the trade back up through military force and the signing of the Treaty of Nanjing. This first war with Britain was a humiliating experience for China and marked the beginning of modern history for China. 

Established in the 18th century by the Qing dynasty, the system was designed to regulate trade with Western traders by forcing them to conduct trade in the southern port of Canton. Some of the restrictions placed on foreign traders were: limited space, could not bring their families, could not reside in China for more then a few months, must be licensed to trade through the Cohong, could not directly contact Qing Officials, and no formal diplomatic relations. Two of the big licensed trading companies were the British East India Company and Dutch VOC. While the Western traders had close cooperation with Chinese merchants, trading grew significantly which caused a trade imbalance in Britain. Exports of tea from China to Britain in 1700 grew from around 92,000 pounds to 2.7 million pounds by 1751. By 1800, the EIC was buying 23 million pounds of tea per year at a cost of 3.6 million pounds of silver. Concerns arose in Britain surrounding their diminishing silver supply. In an attempt to get around the restrictions of the Canton system, Britain sent Lord George McCartney to Beijing in 1793 to promote trade by creating direct ties between the British and the Daoguang Emperor. The diplomatic mission failed along with another mission, the Amherst embassy. Diplomacy had failed, but Britain still had other methods of balancing trade.

One method that Britain used to balance trade was through opium production in India. The opium would either be traded or smuggled into China. The EIC had a production center in Patna where Indian laborers were forced to work in poppy fields and to prepare the opium in mixing halls/examining halls. It was expected that for each workman, 100 balls of opium were to be produced per day. These opium balls were then packed in chests to be sent out onto clipper ships. In 1790, around 4000 chests were sent to China and doubled in 1820. Imports of opium grew rapidly, estimating that around 40,000 chests were sent to China annually. The drug became one of EIC's major export commodity.

"The opium trade was so vast and profitable that all kinds of people, Chinese and foreigners, wanted to participate in it" (Peter Purdue). The drug trade drew all kinds of people into it, wealthy and poor, all were involved in it. Merchants helped smuggle opium and bribed local officials. Even missionaries were drawn into it. "By the 1830's, up to 20 percent of central government officials, 30 percent of local officials, and 30 percent of low-level official regularly consumed opium" (Peter Purdue). National defense was weakening with opium use spreading into the Qing military. While courts issued punishments for opium dealers, local officials ignored them. The issue of opium splintered, with the national government calling for complete prohibition while the local government called for legalization and taxation.

As opium flooded the country, concerns mounted as the economic cost of the silver drain and social costs of addiction rose. "Ultimately, the Daoguang emperor decided to support hardliners who called for complete prohibition, sending the influential official Lin Zexu to Canton in 1839. Lin was a morally upright, energetic official, who detested the corruption and decadence created by the opium trade" (Peter Purdue). When he arrived in Canton, two leading merchants were arrested, trade was stopped, Chinese workers were withdrawn from foreign factories, and 350 foreigners were detained. The Chief superintendent of British Trade, Charles Elliot, surrendered 21,306 chests of opium to Lin, which was subsequently destroyed. Another 20,283 chests held in opium stores were burned and 23 smuggling ships were burned. Lin's first act was a noticeable one, with large consequences looming as Britain's parliament, along with the EIC, were left fuming.

"The second act was restrained almost to the point of invisibility" (Peter Purdue). Lin sent two letters to Queen Victoria, outlining the harm caused by the opium and urging her to put an end to the trade. A noticeable quote from one of the letters is, "The wealth of China is used to profit the barbarians. That is to say, the great profit made by barbarians is all taken from the rightful share of China. By what right do they then in return use the poisonous drug to injure the Chinese people?" (Lin Zexu (Lin Tse-Hsu). The letters were never delivered to Queen Victoria.

Tensions increased when Britain refused to handover seamen that vandalized a temple and killed a man. Lin responded with stopped trade and prohibiting the sale of food to foreigners. Another incident was when two British warships opened fire on war junks anchored off Kowloon, known as the Battle of Kowloon, September 4th, 1839. All of these incidents confirmed that a peaceful resolution was out of reach, and war was inevitable.

In Britain, politicians demanded retaliation and compensation. "Hawks called for war against the obstructionist empire that refused to recognize the blessings of 'free trade.' Doves, essentially agreeing with the Chinese, countered that the opium trade was immoral and a stain on Britain’s reputation (Peter Purdue). Despite no declaration of war from either side, on November 3rd, 1839, the Battle of Chuenpi broke out. A final verdict, not by London but by British authorities in India, was reached with a declaration of war on January 31st, 1840. A large British fleet was dispatched and arrived in June 1840. This fleet consisted of the first steam and sail-powered iron warships ever built. The fleet blockaded and engaged in skirmishes before conveying the British demands to local officials at Tientsin in August 1840. Lin was stripped of his title of Imperial Commissioner in September, and his successor Qishan was appointed to deal with the British. Negotiations failed, and the British fleet waged war in Chuanbi, Tycocktow, and Canton. Another negotiation occurred at Canton, but this failed; both Elliot and Qishan received punishments. More battles occurred between February 1841 and June 1841, with the British taking control of the Pearl River before a truce was reached in Canton on May 27th, 1841. The fleet then headed north and engaged in battles between August 1841 and March 1842. Amoy, Tinghai, Chusan, and Ningpo all fell to British forces. The major push for the end of the war happened between March 1842 and August 1842. They continued their advance north, with a noteworthy battle at Chapu in May 1842. A month after Chapu, the British took Woosong and Shanghai. The final major battle of the war took place at Chinkiang, where the walled city that was between the Yangtze River and Grand Canal, fell to the British. With the fall of Chinkiang, British forces advanced onto Nanking in early August. Before any fighting could begin, the Qing officials agreed to negotiations and the end of the war was in sight.

The war ended with the Treaty of Nanjing being signed on August 29th, 1842. Some of the major aspects of the treaty include "China agreed to open the five ports requested (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai), pay an indemnity of 20 million silver dollars, abolish the Cohong monopoly that hitherto had controlled trade in and through Canton, and adhere to a fixed schedule of customs duties. Additionally, the British were granted the right to occupy Hong Kong in perpetuity; this was their sole outright territorial acquisition" (Peter Purdue). This treaty was the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties.

While the acquisition of Hong Kong disappointed many British commentators during the time of the treaty, "During the 19th century the treaty ports became the largest commercial centers in China, with Shanghai and Hong Kong leading the way" (Peter Purdue). In Britain, the victory in the war also meant a win for commercial and technological progress. In 1844, the United States and France negotiated their own treaties with the Qing government. This became known as the unequal treaty system. The core attributes of this system were that foreigners were exempt from Chinese law, nations had the same rights other foreigners might get in the future, and a low fixed tariff, which prevented China from protecting its native industries. The result of the war still left unresolved fundamental issues that triggered hostilities. In 1856, the Second Opium War broke out between China, England, and France, again resulting in another treaty.

The Opium Trade had a devastating and humiliating effect on Qing China. The failure to prevent the Opium Trade along with European Imperialism and the idea of "free trade", which the British fought for, were all major issues the Chinese fought against. The British also successfully employed gunboat diplomacy, which was supported by technologically superior warships and weapons. This conflict, while a short one, proved the Qing were weak to external powers and had an ever-lasting effect on the Qing dynasty until its downfall in 1912.

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