Palazzos, Perimeters, and Preserving Pasts

Welcome to the United States Chancery, located within the World Heritage Site of the  Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura , housing the US Mission to Italy. While the historic buildings located within the Chancery complex serve an important role as an embassy for US citizens and an epicenter for diplomatic personnel in Italy, their significance to the cultural heritage and historic character of the city cannot be understated. In the following sections we will discuss the iconic Palazzo Margherita--which serves as the primary Embassy building--both before and after it became a US diplomatic space. We will also focus on the entire site, comprising the Old and New Compounds, discuss their broader context within the city, and the local, state, federal, and global policy implications for this complex site.

A chancery, when used in the context of diplomatic missions, refers specifically to the building that houses said mission in their host country.

There are several US Diplomatic Missions that are located in World Heritage Sites as designated by UNESCO's World Heritage Center. Some, like the US Chancery in Rome are within the core zone, while others are located within the outer buffer zone. These buildings must adhere to their host country's building codes and preservation laws to protect the historical integrity of the space they inhabit, with specific architectural requirements being dependent on local contexts. The map below provides an overview of the various US Chanceries that are located within World Heritage Sites.

What is world heritage? UNESCO defines 'world heritage' as “...the designation for places on Earth that are of outstanding universal value," and  "defines culture as a set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of a society or a social group." 

This definition is important to bear in mind when looking at the criteria UNESCO uses to define exceptional heritage sites of cultural or natural importance. Out of the ten possible criteria listed below, a site has meet at least one criteria to be considered “world heritage”. Of these ten, six are culture-related, and the remaining four relate to natural aspects of a site as described below. 

When a property (or group of properties) is declared as a  World Heritage Site  using one or more of these criteria, the country it is located in must maintain the historic character and integrity of the site via a comprehensive site management plan.  UNESCO's World Heritage Committee  itself has no jurisdiction within these countries to enact laws to protect the sites--the World Heritage Site status is merely honorific--but the World Heritage Committee does retain the ability to remove a site from the World Heritage List under certain circumstances. Typically, sites are placed on the ' World Heritage List in Danger ' to serve as a warning mechanism for the relevant federal government agencies to either mitigate the potential harm, or find alternative actions so as not to adversely impact a heritage site.  

This project involves a site located within the World Heritage Site of the Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura which was inscribed to the list in 1980 under the cultural criteria i, ii, iii, iv, and vi (see map below). In later sections we will discuss the laws and protections the Italian government has in place to maintain the authenticity and historical integrity of the site.

Rome, Italy is one of the most historically significant cities in the world. With its historic beginnings dating back to 753 BC, this settlement became the epicenter of a multicultural empire that lasted hundreds of years until its fall around 476 AD. Even in the absence of the Roman Empire, the city of Rome and the country of Italy remained a cultural and religious hub throughout the subsequent medieval period, the Renaissance, and Industrialization in the 19th century. Thus, a city comprising thousands of years of history and incomparable built heritage needs strong policy mechanisms to maintain the integrity of the urban landscape.

The complex housing the US Chancery in Rome is located within the core zone of the World Heritage Site of the Historic Centre of Rome (blue zone). The complex is in close proximity to many of the heritage properties belonging to the Holy See (in red) as seen in the map below.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites cover a variety of different environments, with the Historic Centre of Rome being densely populated. According to statista.com, as of 2023 there are approximately 2.755 million residents in Rome. Annually, the city also receives an average of  7-10 million tourists --during Roman Catholic holidays the number of visitors to this area can be higher than normal. With so much vehicular and foot traffic through the city and especially the heritage sites, it is important to see how the World Heritage Site is managed and protected in Rome. To illustrate what it means for a heritage site to be inhabited and entrenched in a broader urban fabric, we can look at features such as landmarks, hotels, traffic zones, street parking, and metro lines in and around the US Chancery in Rome.

Due to the heavily touristic nature of Rome's Historic Centre, many landmarks are also tourist attractions. Thanks to their touristic nature these landmarks often have significant foot traffic in and around them. When mapped, these sites show us areas of tourist concentration. For the Landmark map, 16 sites were chosen with 13 in the Core Zone, 1 in the Buffer Zone, and 2 in the Vatican city. The Landmarks are represented by orange triangles and have a short description as well as a distance in miles from the Chancery. These 16 landmarks represent the most popular and most heavily trafficked tourist destinations in the city. As a result of the touristic nature of these landmarks, the World Heritage site (core: blue zone; buffer: green zone) contains tourist-oriented infrastructure and businesses that replace or push out resident-focused businesses and increase prices.

Hotels are represented by smaller purple diamonds on the map. There is an immense number of hotels within the historic centre of Rome to accommodate the massive influx of tourists. As such the hotels that we mapped were selected primarily based on their proximity to the Chancery complex. The hotels all have small descriptive information like name, address, rating, distance from the Chancery in miles, and whether breakfast is available. Price is also provided and based on two people staying in a hotel rated 4+ in the peak travel season for Rome. The listed prices also reflect the cost of same day, or next day booking when available. This is to give an estimate of the cost for urgent or last minute accommodations near the embassy complex. The hotels considered also include a range of luxury and budget friendly options, for any occasion. Their proliferation shows the need for temporary housing within the Core Zone itself at the expense of residential services and business offices.

In order to manage the large volume of traffic from tourists as well as to protect the historic structures from pollution, a variety of restricted traffic zones have been implemented across the city to reduce the use of motor vehicles. Within the core zone, traffic is strictly regulated through the use of ZTL’s (Zona a Traffico Limitato). These zones surround some of the most popular historic sites, with 9 of the 16 that we mapped, falling within one of the six main ZTL zones in the core zone. When a ZTL is active, the area will be marked with a red light and drivers must not enter. Within these zones, traffic is limited to taxis and chauffeured car rentals, motorbikes and mopeds, and electric-only vehicles that have been properly registered. A map of these zones shows not only areas that were traditionally congested but also areas that the City of Rome and the Italian government deems worthy of preservation.

Street parking is strictly regulated for a similar reason, and public parking is only available at select locations in and around the Core Zone. With the strict vehicle restrictions in much of the core zone, it is helpful to know where visitors can permissibly park their vehicles. The most common type of street parking are blue zones (“blue stripes”) which indicate both short-term and long-term paid parking. Exemptions for paid parking in these zones exist for those with a receipt of residence, electric or hybrid cars, ride sharing, proof of disability, and emergency service vehicles. Parking in these areas is also free on most public holidays. Each zone in our map displays the hours of enforcement for the specified zone, as well as many special restrictions or exemptions. This layer, like the ZTL layer, shows areas of congestion, preservation, and demonstrates Roman efforts to limit the impact of tourism and modern modes of transportation on the historic city centre. However, the layer also indirectly shows areas of tourist and resident activity.

The metro is the primary mode of public transportation within and across the city. There are three metro lines for the City of Rome. Two (A line and B line) cross the Core Zone while a third (C line) meets the other two at a central terminal in the Buffer Zone. The A line runs east and west, crossing three of the main ZTL zones and is a convenient option for tourists traveling on foot. The B line runs north and south, linking several landmarks, including the Colosseum, the Circus Maximus, and Palatine Hill. The metro layer shows not only that Rome is a major metropolitan area with a need to transport 820,000 daily passengers, but also has a developed metro system that lower emissions by reducing congestion. Reducing congestion also reduces emissions that could damage historical structures and cause numerous health risks. The underground nature of the metro also preserves the historical character of the city by not modifying existing streetscapes. These modifications could have included new parking garages and widened streets to accommodate the number of cars that would otherwise be needed.

The US Chancery complex comprises two sections: Old Compound and New Compound. Each building within the two compounds has a unique architectural and historical character that contributes to the overall historicity of the Core Zone. Below is a brief tour of the properties within the entire complex.

The site of the US Chancery complex is located within the core zone of a World Heritage Site, and all aspects of the complex contribute to its historic character. The site of the complex traces its long social and architectural history to the first century BCE, with various historical events and developments eventually shaping the site to what it is today.

In order to fully comprehend the drastic changes to the landscape around the Ludovisi Villa during the last 300 years, the map below overlays Nolli's map of Rome made in 1748 on a current-day map. As can be seen, the extensive gardens and vignes surrounding the city center have been replaced by urban infill over time. The blue square on the modern-day map denotes the chancery complex property.

Despite the historic nature of the site and the various protections that come along with that, there have been many changes that have been made to the chancery complex in recent years.

The two villas were acquired by the US government in 1931, although they were administered by the Swiss during World War II. After the war, the US bought the rest of the old compound. View the map below for a tour of the most important changes.

The new compound was previously constructed, owned, maintained, and modified by the INA (the Italian National Life Insurance company). The properties in this compound were acquired by the US government in 2003. Following acquisition, the United States government embarked on a major modification and restoration program from 2003-2011 with some minor changes in subsequent years. Some notable changes are shown in the map below.

Aside from these major changes to the Old and New Compounds as described above, various updates have been needed to keep the site up to date and functional as a busy embassy. A map of all changes that have occurred since 2000 (covering roughly 15 years until the publishing of the HSR) is shown below. Clicking on each dot shows additional details for the updates.

The compounds, both old and new, fall within the purview of multiple different policies and legislation ranging from global to local. Both compounds are located in the  Historic Center of Rome World Heritage site . The old compound (specifically the Palazzo Margherita and the two villas within the old compound) is one of 44 Chancery properties on the  United States Secretary of State’s Register of Culturally Significant Properties . All properties' approximate locations are shown in the map below.

The US Chancery in Rome is located within the Core Zone of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of ‘ Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura ’. Thus, UNESCO states that “All properties inscribed on the World Heritage List must have adequate long-term legislative, regulatory, institutional and/or traditional protection and management to ensure their safeguarding” ( Operational guidelines paragraph 98 ). Additionally, protection and management of World Heritage properties should ensure that their  Outstanding Universal Value , including the conditions of integrity and/or authenticity at the time of inscription, are sustained or enhanced over time ( Operational guidelines paragraph 96 ). Since the UNESCO World Heritage Site designation is only honorific, it doesn’t provide legal protections for properties. Those fall to the federal, state, and local governments of the communities in which the sites are located. Thus, there are specific sets of policies that apply to complex sites like the US Chancery in Rome. See below for Italian and Roman policies that impact the US Chancery. Additionally, given that the property is owned by the US Government, as owners and custodians of the site, they follow certain provisions of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1960, as described below. As we show below, Italian and US laws do not appear to be in contradiction with each other. Similar US Chancery properties in other countries can similarly be analyzed through the policies that apply to them to ensure that appropriate heritage management guidelines are followed and suitable actions are undertaken in pursuit of a site’s preservation.

Certain policies and provisions in the NHPA define and limit what work can be done on the exterior of the US-owned properties overseas– the majority of the legislation applies to historic properties within the continental US, Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republics of Palau and the Northern Mariana Islands. Because the US government owns and is actively using the US Chancery site in Rome, the provisions of the NHPA regarding foreign properties apply  (Appendix 1, Section 402, 16 U.S.C. 470a-2) . Specifically, “Prior to the approval of any Federal undertaking outside the United States which may directly and adversely affect a property which is on the World Heritage List or on the applicable country's equivalent of the National Register, the head of a Federal agency having direct or indirect jurisdiction over such undertaking shall take into account the effect of the undertaking on such property for purposes of avoiding or mitigating any adverse effects.” This is similar to provisions of Section 106 of the NHPA that applies to projects within the United States. For the US Chancery in Rome site, this means that any actions or projects planned in and around the site need to undergo a review to understand and mitigate all possible adverse impacts to the cultural heritage properties and their integrity within the compound. Some of the most important policy implications for the site, however, come from legislation in Italy, which is discussed next.

The Italian Code of the Cultural and Landscape Heritage describes what the Italian government regards as cultural heritage and what must be done to preserve and protect it. Although we have been unable to find any complete list of properties and items governed under this law, the  Historic Structure Report (HSR)  commissioned by the Bureau of Overseas Building Operations (OBO) in the US Department of State notes that the Palazzo Margherita is specifically protected under Italian law. Additionally, all buildings within the compound are covered under this law, giving them protection as cultural heritage.

The code is split up into five sections: (1) General Provisions, (2) Cultural Property, (3) Landscape Assets, (4) Sanctions, and (5) Transitional Provisions, Abrogation and Coming into Effect of Laws. Below is a summary of the provisions and specific articles (Art.) from each section that apply to the US Chancery in Rome.

This section focuses on a high-level overview of what the act covers and aims to do. Starting off with general principles, it gives a brief listing of who exactly is responsible for protecting heritage (all public and private bodies) (Art. 1) and a brief description of what cultural heritage is, to be elaborated upon later in the dedicated sections about cultural property and landscape assets (Art. 2). Notably, it also defines Enhancement of Heritage, which will become important later (Arts. 6, 7). It also gives power to the Ministry for Cultural Heritage and Cultural Activities, or Ministero per i beni culturali e le attivita culturali (henceforth referred to as the Ministry) to oversee conservation efforts and all other functions of the act as necessary (Art. 4), including working with the various regions, obtaining documentation, directing, or supervising as needed (Art. 5). While not explicitly defined, there are soprintendenza (superintendent/director) for different municipalities around the country that are given various important tasks regarding maintenance and induction of properties. 

This key section concerns itself with all aspects of cultural properties, defined in Article 10 as “immovable and movable things [...] which possess artistic, historical, archaeological or ethno-anthropological interest.” Additionally, museum and book collections of governments or archives of any government bodies are included within this definition (Art. 10.2). Items belonging to private owners can also fall under cultural heritage (Art. 10.3) provided they are declared properly as described next (Art. 13). For example, manuscripts, maps, villas, public squares, ships could all be heritage if they had enough cultural interest (Art. 10.4). Nothing newer than fifty years may be considered (Art. 10.5). In order to be considered of cultural interest, a property must first be declared by the superintendent, sending notifications to all interested parties (Arts. 13, 15). Items declared this way as cultural heritage must be verified by the Ministry, although no specific rubric is provided (the Ministry is expected to fix the criteria for interest as it deems fit) (Art. 12).

Conservation

All cultural property must be cataloged by the Ministry. Working from this, the Ministry and Regions should come up with a way to study the properties (they may also work with universities) (Art. 17). The ministry is also in charge of supervising (Art. 18) and inspecting (Art. 19) cultural heritage in order to ensure that the heritage is being preserved or enhanced. 

Due to the sensitive nature of many of the properties, there are both actions that are forbidden and those that need to be authorized by the ministry. The list of forbidden actions states that “Cultural properties may not be destroyed, damaged or adapted to uses not compatible with their historic or artistic character” (Art. 20). Meanwhile, the Ministry must approve any removal, demolition, discarding of, or transfer of any cultural heritage (Art. 21), as well as any construction orders taking place on the site (Arts. 22, 23). However, temporary and emergency work required to avoid damage to the property may be carried out, provided the superintendent is notified immediately (Art. 27). If the superintendent deems that any work is being done without being properly authorized or in a way that jeopardizes the cultural property, they can order the suspension of the work (Art. 28).

There are three kinds of conservation treatments recommended by this provision: Prevention, Maintenance, and Restoration (Art. 29). See the graphic below for more details.

Whoever owns the cultural property must ensure the safety and proper conservation of their cultural property, and any archives must be organized and inventoried (Art. 30). Generally, conservation is done on a voluntary basis and approved by the superintendent, but the Ministry may oblige certain work to be done if it deems it necessary to ensure conservation (Arts. 31, 32). In order to force work to be done, the superintendent first compiles a technical report. The work may either be done directly by the Ministry or by the owner under a time limit assigned by the Ministry. If this time limit is not met, then the Ministry may do the work directly (Art. 33). In the case of this obligatory conservation work, the cost is paid by the holder of the site, although the Ministry may help pay if it deems fit (Art. 34). For more specifics, see Articles 35, 36, and 37. After restoration, the buildings shall be made accessible to the public under terms decided by the superintendent (Art. 38). If the Ministry deems fit, it can have movable cultural property (paintings, photographs, etc.) moved and conserved in public institutions in order to ensure further conservation of the property (Art. 43). Additionally, consenting archives may be loaned cultural property for a minimum of five years in order to allow the property to be better enjoyed by the public. (Art. 44).

In addition to the direct protection of the buildings, the Ministry has the ability to protect the integrity of immovable cultural heritage (usually buildings) by preventing alterations to the site’s surroundings (Art. 45). In order to receive this protection, a superintendent must initiate the proceeding and notify all relevant parties  (Art. 46). Once the provision is approved, then the provision will be recorded in the building registers and will remain there until it is successfully appealed (Art. 47). 

Additionally, the ministry can expropriate (take control of) cultural property if said action improves on the protection of the item for purposes of public enjoyment (Art. 95). Buildings can also be expropriated either to carry out work of archaeological interest or to search for additional cultural heritage (Art. 97). The owner of the property must be reimbursed for such expropriation (Art. 99). 

It is forbidden to advertise on buildings or in areas marked as cultural property, unless approved by the superintendent. Approvals will only be made if the posting has no harm to the appearance or public enjoyment of the buildings (Art. 49). Additionally, the superintendent can identify areas where all commercial activity is forbidden (Art. 52). 

Moving and Selling Cultural Heritage

Items may be loaned out to various expositions and exhibits, provided the Ministry is given at least four months of advance notice and subsequently approves the request (Art. 48). Items, including frescoes, graffiti, tablets, or inscriptions may not be removed without approval of the superintendent (Art. 50). Additionally, Artists’ Studios, if they are protected as cultural heritage, cannot have their contents removed or their designated use altered (Art. 51). However, items of cultural importance may not be moved out of the country permanently (Art. 65). Items may be removed from the country for the purposes of art events or expositions of great cultural interest, provided that the safety and integrity of the items is assured, and that the items are not susceptible to damage during transportation (Art 66). Items may also leave the country if they are undergoing conservation work unable to be carried out in Italy, if they are part of interior decor for diplomatic seats abroad, or if they are exchanged in a reciprocity agreement with a foreign museum institution (Art. 67). Any items illegally removed from the country after December 31, 1992 shall be returned (Art. 75). 

Items may be transferred between owners, provided that the Ministry is notified and approves of the transfer. Items of cultural property may be sold or inherited in this manner (Art. 59). Transfers must be declared to the Ministry, although any incomplete declaration is considered to have never been submitted (Art. 59). Further, when a declaration is submitted, the Ministry has the opportunity to purchase by pre-emption (before the other party) the property for the price declared (Art. 60). It must exercise this right within 60 days of receiving the declaration (Art. 61). 

Any commercial activity regarding antique or used objects must make daily entries in a register shared with the region describing the characteristics of the activity and things sold in this way. There is a value limit defined by the Ministry in agreement with the Ministry of Internal Affairs, to be verified by the superintendent or their officers. (Art. 63). Any items sold this way must come with a certificate of authenticity (Art. 64).

Findings and Discoveries

The Ministry is responsible for conducting archaeological searches and other activities intended to find more cultural heritage. If needed, the Ministry may temporarily occupy the locations where the searches are being performed, as long as the owner of the building is compensated (Art. 88). If the Ministry desires, they may allow public or private subjects to carry out these searches in their place. All subjects must follow the rules set out by the Ministry, or their permission will be revoked. Permission can also be revoked if the Ministry wishes to take over the project, provided all expenses the subject has incurred so far be compensated. (Art. 89). If any objects are found fortuitously, then they must be immediately reported to the Ministry. Objects that are able to be moved may be relocated if it is absolutely necessary for their safekeeping, otherwise the items must remain exactly as they were found (Art. 90). Property found either through a search or fortuitously belongs to the State, although the finder may receive a reward up to one quarter the value of the thing found (Art. 91, 92). Value is assessed by the Ministry, although parties entitled to compensation may request a third-party assessment (Art. 93). 

Public Enjoyment of Cultural Property

There are multiple places that are deemed to be for public enjoyment and providing a public service; see the graphic below for more information (Art. 101). The State and other government bodies must ensure that the places, if they are publicly owned, remain available for public enjoyment (Art. 102), either for free or with an admission fee. Libraries are required to remain free for reading, study, and research. The Ministry helps determine an appropriate entry fee, where applicable (Art. 103). 

If a privately owned cultural property contains something of exceptional interest, then, after the property is declared as such by the Ministry, the property must be available to the public. The superintendent, working with the owner of the property, decides the visiting rights (Art. 104). As far as we are aware, the US Chancery does not have any such cultural property. 

Property may be reproduced with the permission of the superintendent without violating copyright laws (Art. 107), although a fee may be owed to the owner of the cultural piece (Art. 108). Copies can only be made for purposes in keeping with the original cultural heritage of the part, such as study, enhancement, or public display. Photographs may also be taken of cultural property, provided that a duplicate is provided to the original owner of the cultural property (Art. 109).

Enhancement

Enhancement is the act of organizing resources and facilities, providing technical skills, or gathering funding in order to pursue the aims of conservation. This can be by both public institutions and private individuals (Art. 111). If done privately, support may be requested from the state (Art. 113). Quality of enhancement is verified by the Ministry, which sets standards of quality (Art. 114). Services of cultural assistance may also be provided, such as guest services at a museum, providing books to be reproduced and lent to the public, or making audio-visual aids (Art. 116). Owners of cultural heritage may also choose to work with schools of every level to provide greater access to the cultural materials (Art. 119).

Landscape assets are integral parts of the territory whose characteristics are derived from nature or the history of humanity and their relationship with nature (Art. 131). As the United States Chancery does not fall into these categories, it is not a landscape asset. The remainder of this section is not applicable to our site.

There are several actions for which the Ministry can impose sanctions or punishments. Perhaps most obviously, damaging cultural property, either intentionally or by ignoring conservation duties, will require the transgressor to return the property to original condition at their expense. If the transgressor fails to do this, the Ministry will step in and do the restoration at the expense of the transgressor. However, if the property is unable to be restored to its original condition (Art. 160), lost, or taken out of the country, then the transgressor must pay the Ministry the value of items destroyed or lost, decided either by the Ministry or by a small commission of 3 members (one from the ministry, one from the transgressor, and one appointed by the president of the court) (Art. 161). 

If someone fails to properly document the export of an object, then they will be charged with a fine of up to 620 Euros. (Arts. 165, 166)

Doing any work on cultural property, including restoration, without proper authorization is punishable by a fine of up to 38,734.50 Euros (Art. 169). The same fine can apply to using properties in a way that is incompatible with their historical nature, using them in a way that is harmful to conservation, failing to locate the items in the location designated by the superintendent, or failing to comply with Ministry instructions (Arts 170, 171, 172, 173). A larger fine of up to 77,469 Euros may be charged to anybody who transfers ownership of cultural property without property notifying the ministry (Art. 174).

Any unauthorized archaeological searches are punishable by up to a year in jail and a fine of up to 3,099 Euros (Art. 175). Forgery is subject to the same punishment (Art 178), unless this is done by the owner of the property, done on a work that is already inauthentic, or done for the purposes of restoration (Art. 179).

This section deals with the transition of the older laws to this one, and as such is no longer relevant to the US Chancery in Rome.

While to many, the seat of the US diplomatic mission to Italy may seem like a standard compound, we hope that this project has offered you a greater insight into the history and regulations that go into protecting this cultural heritage site. The project highlights how various states (like the US and Italian governments in this project) work in collaboration to preserve, maintain, and safeguard busy and functional properties like US Chanceries that are located within World Heritage Sites. Through this project, we hope that US citizens traveling overseas will have a better understanding of the stewardship role played by the Department of State as a representative of the US Government, having ownership and occupancy of incredibly important and historic sites like Palazzo Margherita. Preserving and safeguarding World Heritage Sites does not solely fall on the shoulders of the host country, especially in a vibrant urban environment like Rome. We all have a part to play in this important task of preserving cultural heritage, and being conscientious of how we can and have impacted the Historic Centre of Rome is paramount to the future of the city.

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