Musical Creolization in the Caribbean

Examining the distinctive cultures and musical genres in Trinidad and Tobago and Cuba

(Mitrica 2015)

The Caribbean is home to countless examples of creolization. Creolization is the development of a distinctive culture due to the historical interaction of various cultures. Manifestations of creolization can be seen in language, music and other cultural practices. The Caribbean displays many examples of this phenomenon mainly due to the African slave trade in the 19th century. Enslaved Africans from Western Africa were transported to the United States in the biggest forced migration in history. While many Africans wound up in North America and more than 5 million in Brazil alone, the Caribbean was the second biggest destination for slaves (Pruitt 2016). Many enslaved Africans that arrived in the Caribbean came from the regions of Senegambia and West-Central Africa which include the countries of Senegal, Mali and Congo. Along with their forced labor, slaves from these regions also brought culturally distinctive aspects of their life with them to the Caribbean (Pruitt 2016).

In addition to the significant impact slavery had on culture shifts in the Caribbean, the migration of groups of people from island to island -- as seen in the Haitian Revolution-- also impacted the makeup of the Caribbean region. The culmination of different cultures colliding together during this time sparked many different changes in the cultural landscape of the Caribbean (Pruitt 2016).

Including every single island in an analysis of creolization in the Caribbean is a daunting task considering the extensive number of islands and the distinguishing cultural aspects on every island. The two islands of Trinidad and Tobago and Cuba offer different examples of creolization. Trinidad and Tobago differs from Cuba geographically due to its proximity to Venezuela and it's large population of African and Indian people. Cuba, located south of Florida, introduces culturally different aspects from Trinidad and Tobago with the island's large European and African population.

Trinidad and Tobago

Navigate the map by clicking the different pinpoints and reading about the various musical genres on Trinidad and Tobago.

The island of Trinidad and Tobago is located off the coast of Venezuela in the Caribbean. The island is home to an abundance of different cultural, musical, and religious practices. The population of this Caribbean island is 43% African and 40% East Indian. Within the island, there are many minority groups such as Europeans, Venezuelans, Syrians and Chinese. English remains the official language of the island with French Patoi and Hindi Bhojpuri remaining popular dialects within dialogue and song (Myers 2001, 1).

As mentioned in the map above, Trinidad is home to various musical genres. The most prominent musical styles on the island include Calypso and Chutney. The musical genre of Calypso blends together European elements including French lyrics and Spanish instrumentation with African tempo and drums (Myers 2001, 4). The genre of Calypso derives from a French singing style called kalindas. Kalindas represents pride in West African music and is accompanied by various traditional African percussion instruments and conch shells and horns (Myers 2001, 4).

(KalindaProductions 2011)

The video to the right shows stick fighting in Trinidad and Tobago. This practice on the island was popularized during the Trinidadian Carnival after emancipation. Alongside stick fighting, the music style of kalindas and other African traditions were integrated into the festival. These two practices were a reflection of the liberation of black Trinidadians and the ability for them to bring some of their traditional practices to the island (Myers 2001, 4).

(Visual Art and Production 2017)

After the emancipation of slavery in the mid 19th century, Trinidad transported laborers from India to assist in the labor shortage (Myers 2001, 7). This influx of Indian culture during this time made Caribbean music and culture what it is today. A popular music style that has been influenced by Indian culture is Chutney. The music style of Chutney parallels Calypso music by representing the other 40% of the island's population: East Indians. The word Chutney relates to the term spicy in Hindu and although it is rooted in traditional Indian music, modernized Chutney takes on a more sexual and upbeat connotation. Modern Chutney is usually performed in an ensemble. Within the ensemble there is a lead vocalist, harmonium, dholak, and a dantal. The dholak -- a barrel drum-- used to be considered the pinnacle instrument of the Chutney performance, but amidst modernization on the island and the rise of technology worldwide, the dholak has been replaced by more synthesized drum programs (Manuel 1998, 25-27). The rise of modernized Chutney music on the island has taken on the name Chutney-soca, which includes Calpyso elements of dance within the Chutney genre. Modern Chutney has undergone extensive criticism by traditionalists, claiming it to be crude and explicit especially in regards to the male-female dance routines (Manuel 1998, 27).

Overall Trinidad and Tobago is a quintessential example of creolization in the Caribbean. This island represents the ability for many cultures to interact together to form distinctive cultural practices. The musical genre of Calypso shows how European and African elements have interacted together to create this original genre. The musical style of Chutney represents the interaction of Indian and European music, with the influence of African music prevalent in Chutney-soca styled music. The less popular genres associated with Shango in the eastern peak of the island and Parang in the lower western corner of the island also represent the prevalence and effect of many different cultures on the makeup of this small island.

Cuba

Contradanza is a style of dance music that has no lyrics and is mainly a line dance accompanied by violins, trumpets, flutes and various other instruments. Contradanza has been referred to as the foundation of many other dance and musical styles in Cuba. It’s been suggested that contradanza has laid the framework for dance genres such as the son, the habanera, the mambo, and the chachachá (Manuel 2009, 51). Examining contradanza as the soul of a significant cultural phenomenon such as dance lends knowledge to the cultural history of Cuba itself. 

There are various understandings of where the popular dance style of contradanza comes from. Many scholars suggest that contradanza was brought to the eastern coast of Cuba after the Haitian Revolution where refugees fled to the neighboring island, bringing the French derivative of contradanza -- contredanse-- with them. However it is also suggested that contradanza arrived in Cuba prior to the Haitian Revolution from Spain during colonization (Manuel 2009, 52). 

Navigate the map by clicking the different colored regions and reading about the popular musical cities in Cuba: Havana and Santiago de Cuba.

The idea that contradanza arrived in Cuba from Haiti during the Haitian Revolution suggests that contradanza was first popularized in the Oriente province of Cuba, the region of Cuba closest to Haiti. The Oriente version of contradanza is more upbeat and rhythmic, similar musical elements found in Franco-Haitian styles. The similarities between the French contredanse and the Oriente contradanza indicates that Cuban contradanza originated from French descent. This version of contradanza has been known for bringing a lively dance style to the province of Oriente, specifically, the city of Santiago de Cuba (Manuel 2009, 53). 

This video is of the dance style son which is said to have originated in Santiago de Cuba. Unlike authentic contradanza, the dance style son is more upbeat and accompanied by lyrics but includes many of the same components as seen in Oriente contradanza which was directly impacted by French African music (Mateu 2016).

On the flip side however, the other hypothesis is that contradanza arrived in Cuba from Spain during colonization. This idea refutes the conception of contradanza originating from the French contredanse, and instead proposes that Cuban contradanza came from Spanish contradanza originally (Manuel 2009, 56). Many argue that the reason contradanza was born from Spanish contradanza is due to the popularity of contradanza in Havana well before the Haitian revolution (Manuel 2009, 54). 

This video depicts a more traditional version of contradanza, performed by many in Havana, Cuba (ViolinPianoDuet 2009).

Havana is located on the western region of the island and has continually been a popular music destination in Cuba. Public dances were held frequently in the 18th century and exist still today. At these events, musicians would play and dance contradanza in addition to other dance styles like congos and guarachas (Manuel 2009, 58). Havana has historically rivaled the city of Santiago de Cuba located on the eastern coast of the island. The rivalry between these two Cuban cities as birthplaces of contradanza and powerhouses of the musical world is rooted in the cultural differences between the two cities.

The disagreement between whether or not Cuban contradanza was born by the French creoles in the Santiago de Cuba region or Spaniards in the Havana region has been a persistent debacle within the island. Regardless of the true origin of Cuban contradanza, the idea that Cuban contradanza was born from either Spanish or French descent is indicative of the wide variety of culture on this island. The differences in culture between Havana and Santiago de Cuba-- reflected in the differences between contradanza styles-- is indicative of creolization in Cuba.

Conclusion

Examining Trinidad and Tobago and Cuba as examples of creolization in the Caribbean shows us how influential cultural practices like music have on shaping a nation. Musical genres like Chutney and Calypso in Trinidad and Tobago that were brought to the island by Indians and Africans have molded Trinidad into the island nation it is today. In Cuba, understanding contradanza through the lens of the Haitian Revolution or through the lens of initial Spanish colonization alludes to the complex history behind the island. Overall, understanding the impact of music on these islands gives scholars insight to the complexity and diversity of islands like Trinidad and Tobago and Cuba within the Caribbean.

Total Word Count: 2083

Bibliography

Myers, Helen. "Trinidad and Tobago, Republic of." Oxford Music Online, January 20, 2001, 1-12. Accessed May 16, 2021. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.44477.

Pruitt, Sarah. "What Part of Africa Did Most Enslaved People Come From?" History.com. May 03, 2016. Accessed May 17, 2021.  https://www.history.com/news/what-part-of-africa-did-most-slaves-come-from .

Manuel, Peter, ed. Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean. Temple University Press, 2009. Accessed May 17, 2021.  http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt14bt33p .

Manuel, Peter. "Chutney and Indo-Trinidadian Cultural Identity." Popular Music 17, no. 1 (1998): 21-43. Accessed May 17, 2021.  http://www.jstor.org/stable/853271 .

Goodsell, J. Nelson. "Havana." Encyclopedia Britannica, December 15, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/place/Havana.

Mitrica, Dragos. "Slave Trade: From Africa to the Americas." Digital image. ZME Science. March 10, 2015. Accessed May 16, 2021.  https://www.zmescience.com/medicine/genetic/caribbean-slave-africa-10032015/ .

KalindaProductions. “Trinidad Stick Fighting I.” Youtube video. 2:59. April 13, 2011.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uiYoBGgTRxo&t=10s  

Visual Art and Production. “Chris Garcia- Chutney Bacchanal- World Beat Studios - Earth TV.” Youtube video. 3:44. June 17, 2017.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WPduf3Joh0E 

ViolinPianoDuet. “Contradanza from Cuban Zarzuela Cecilia Valdes by Gonzalo Roig.” Youtube video. 2:45. August 20, 2009.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yyz9SkX94Tg 

Carlos Mateu. “Dancing Son Cubano with Contradanza Criolla.” Youtube video. 5:21. January 2, 2016.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=piT0l_hk9_g 

*indentation in terms of format for the bibliography was not translated over in ArcGIS

(Mitrica 2015)