The Water Crisis in Canada's First Nations Communities

Disclaimer: All information, data and images have been cited throughout the Story Map. Although every attempt has been made to provide accurate and complete information, data may change prior to updating. The author makes no warranties or representations, express or implied, concerning the accuracy, reliability or completeness of the information contained on this story. As a non-Indigenous person, the author acknowledges that she cannot speak for the Indigenous communities, and attempts to draw on their voices, the existing data and literature to describe rather than define water-related challenges facing First Nations today.

Safe drinking water is essential to the human health and well-being. For many First Nations people, water also has deep cultural and spiritual significance. Although access to safe and reliable drinking water is easy for most Canadian, many first Nations communities have long been experiencing challenges to accessing safe drinking water, which is exemplified by that the water supplied to many First Nations reserves is often contaminated, hard to access, or at risk due to faulty treatment systems (Galway, 2016; Human Rights Watch, 2016). Government reports, case-study reviews by non-profit organizations and academic research have identified the inequalities in the accessibility to safe drinking water between First Nations communities and other communities across Canada. For example, people living on First Nations reserves are 90 times more likely to be without running water than other Canadians (Morrison et al., 2015). The number of water-borne infections in First Nations communities is 26 times higher than the national average, and “about 30% of reserved-based community water systems are classified as posing a high risk to water quality” (Morrison et al., 2015). The long-standing issue of inadequate access to safe drinking water in First Nations communities is also demonstrated by the large number of drinking water advisories on First Nations water systems across Canada. 

Watch the video "Canada's Water Crisis: Indigenous Families at Risk" from Human Rights Watch

Drinking water advisories are preventative measures to protect the public from potential health threats from waterborne microbiological and/or chemical contamination that could be or are known to be present in drinking water (Health Canada, 2009). They can be issued for various reasons including problems with the water system (e.g., water line breaks, equipment failure, poor filtration), disinfection when water is treated, and the lack of trained staff to run the water system or to test and ensure the quality of the drinking water (Government of Canada, 2021).

Health Canada issues three types of drinking water advisories: "Boil Water", "Do Not Consume", and "Do Not Use" advisories.

A Boil Water Advisory is issued “when the water in a community's water system is contaminated with faecal pollution indicator organisms (such as Escherichia coli) or when water quality is questionable due to operational deficiencies (such as inadequate chlorine residual)”. “Under these circumstances, bringing the water to a rolling boil for at least one minute will render it safe for human consumption.” (Health Canada, 2009).

A Do Not Consume advisory is issued when the water in a community's water system contains contaminants, such as lead, that cannot be removed from the water by boiling (Government of Canada, 2021). Do not consume advisories are also called do not drink advisories.

A Do Not Use advisory is issued when using the water poses a health risk, the water system contains pollutants that cannot be removed from the water by boiling, and exposure to the water could cause skin, eye, and/or nose irritations (perhaps due to a chemical spill) (Government of Canada, 2021).

Advisories may be short term, lasting less than 12 months, or long term, lasting 12 months or more. Short-term drinking water advisories usually indicate a temporary water quality issue on a specific water system. However, water systems with recurring and lengthy short-term drinking water advisories often indicate ongoing deficiencies that, if unaddressed, could lead to long-term advisories (Auditor General of Canada, 2021). 

As of November 1, 2021 (the most recently available data at the time of this study), there were a total of 99 drinking water advisories in effect in First Nations communities. The map below shows the locations of drinking water advisories issued on either public or private water systems in First Nations communities in Canada. They are colored shaded according to the duration of the advisories (i.e., less than 1 year, 1 to 5 years, more than 5 to 10 years, more than 10 to 15 years, more than 15 to 20 years, and more than 20 years).

Click on a water advisory on the map to see detailed information - Name of the First Nation community where the water advisory was issued, name of the drinking water system under advisory, type of drinking water advisory, the date when the advisory was set, the duration of the advisory, and the number of people affected by each advisory.

Note: The data used for this map consisted of 1) drinking water advisories in effect in First Nations south of 60 across Canada and reported by Indigenous Services Canada (ISC) as November 1, 2021; 2) drinking water advisories in effect in First Nations communities in British Columbia reported by  British Columbia's First Nations Health Authority  as November 1, 2021 (excluding those classified as the "water quality advisories" to keep consistency with the ISC data).

Indigenous Services Canada collects data on long-term advisories that were issued on public water systems across the country, as well as on long-term advisories on private water systems and short-term advisories except for those issued in British Columbia and within the Saskatoon Tribal Council, as this data is managed by First Nations agencies or tribal councils. At the time of this study, the data on drinking water advisories from the  Saskatoon Tribal Council  were not available.

The long-standing issue of inadequate access to safe drinking water among First Nations communities in Canada has received significant attention from different levels of government, which results in a series of policy initiatives and programs, legislative changes and funding aimed at improving water and wastewater systems in First Nations communities. 

Despite these efforts, the problem of inadequate access to safe and clean drinking water in First Nation communities persists. In particular, the government failed to meet its 2015 commitment to eliminate all long-term drinking water advisories on public water systems on First Nations reserves by 31 March 2021. Since November 2015, there were a total of 162 long-term drinking water advisories on public water systems in First Nations communities. As of November 1, 2021, 119 (73.5%) of these long-term drinking water advisories had been eliminated and 43 (26.5%) remained in effect in 31 First Nations communities. The figure below shows how the number of long-term drinking water advisories (LT-DWAs) changed in the last seven years.

Explore the dashboard below to see the status and the geographic locations of the long-term drinking water advisories on public systems on First Nations reserves from 2015 to 2021.

Of the 43 long-term drinking water advisories that remained in effect as of 1 November 2021, over half (24, or 55.8%) had been in place for more than a decade. For 8% of the remaining long-term water advisories, water system projects to lift drinking water advisory had been completed. There were still 16% of the projects to lift drinking water advisory were under construction and the other 3% were still in the design and feasibility stages. The 2021 report from Canada’s auditor general found that although the COVID-19 pandemic delayed progress on some water system projects, many were already experiencing delays prior to the start of the pandemic (Auditor General of Canada, 2021).

While the specific factors that lead to unsafe water in each individual community may be unique, government reports, studies led by non-profit organizations and academic research have identified and discussed a range of systemic problems that contribute to the persistent water crisis in the First Nations communities.

First, the water crisis for First Nations people exists partially as a result of the legacy of colonialism and the forced relocation of many Indigenous communities to areas where resource extraction puts stress on drinking water (Baijius and Patrick, 2019). Most First Nations water systems are small (a small system is defined as a drinking water system serving less than 5000 people according to Health Canada) and some are in remote communities that are not always accessible by road. These circumstances present unique challenges, such as relying on aging distribution systems, managing high capital and operating costs, lacking access to funding, finding and retaining qualified water system operators, and getting supplies and materials (Galway, 2016, Auditor General of Canada, 2021). Overall, small systems have been found to be more vulnerable to drinking water contamination and outbreaks compared to large municipal systems (Galway, 2016).

Other factors that may contribute to the persistent problem of inadequate access to safe drinking water among First Nations communities include:

• The absence of a regulatory regime for safe drinking water in First Nations communities that ensures First Nations people to receive protections comparable with other Canadians (Auditor General of Canada, 2021)
• The deficiencies with First Nations water systems that had not been addressed by long-term solutions (Auditor General of Canada, 2021)
• Insufficient funding and ineffective allocation process for the operation and maintenance of First Nations water infrastructure (Auditor General of Canada, 2021)
• The limited engagement of First Nations in decision-making around resolving drinking water issues in their communities (David Suzuki Foundation, 2017)
• A lack of federal government support for private water and wastewater systems (Human Rights Watch, 2016)
• The degradation of source water (Human Rights Watch, 2016)
• A lack of consistent training and support for water operators (David Suzuki Foundation, 2017)

To Indigenous people, water is more than a commodity or a necessity for physical survival, rather, it has deep cultural and spiritual significance. From an indigenous worldview, water is considered to be the lifeblood of Mother Earth, a sacred gift from the Creator that connects all things, and a spiritual resource that must be respected, kept clean, and protected for the future generations of all life (Basdeo and Bharadwaj, 2013; Bradford et al., 2016). 

Watch the video "Water Spirit" which describes the importance of water both spiritually and physically to Indigenous Peoples.

Previous research has indicated that inadequate access to safe and sustainable drinking water among First Nations populations makes them more vulnerable to waterborne illness and increase their exposure to chemical contaminants, which can have long-term health impacts that range from gastrointestinal illnesses, skin problems (eczema and skin cancers), and birth defects to increased risk of cancer (Bradford et al., 2016, Human Rights Watch, 2016). When a boil water advisory is issued, community members are advised to boil water for one minute prior to use including drinking water, brushing teeth, food preparation, bathing at-risk populations (e.g., infant, toddler, the elderly). In cases where water cannot be boiled, community members often have to purchase commercially packaged water to meet their daily needs. Living under a water advisory can become a significant burden in terms of time and financial resources, particularly during long-term advisories and for those vulnerable populations – children, the elderly, pregnant women, people with disabilities, people with chronic diseases, and low-income families (Galway, 2016, Human Rights Watch, 2016). It has been shown that although the most serve public health concerns like water-borne illness and related deaths were mostly avoided through issuing water advisories, the economic and social costs of drinking water problems among First Nations communities are considerable (Human Rights Watch, 2016). For example, the occurrence of a water advisory can cause businesses and services to close temporarily, which results in the subsequent loss of income. Recurring and lengthy advisories in a community may cause its residents to lose confidence in its drinking water quality, which could make them turn to unsafe alternative sources, such as untreated lake water, even after the advisory is eliminated (Auditor General of Canada, 2021). In addition, it has negatively impacted the culture life of First Nations people and contributed to the severe housing shortage on reserves (Human Rights Watch, 2016). 

Case Study: The Mercury Poisoning in the Grassy Narrows and Wabaseemoong Communities

“The prevalence of drinking water advisories in First Nations communities in Canada is “a national disgrace” that clearly results in myriad consequences that are particularly problematic for an already marginalized and disadvantaged group.” - Galway

It is important to acknowledge that the water crisis is also reflective of and compounded by the underlying economic, social, political marginalization and disadvantage faced by First Nations peoples of Canada (Galway, 2016).

Poverty, high unemployment rate, low educational attainment, and poor housing conditions among First Nations have been demonstrated in recent census data, especially for those living on reserves. The table displays some socio-economic variables from the 2016 Census that highlight disparities between First Nations living on and off reserves and non-Indigenous population in Canada.

In addition, the health of Indigenous peoples overall remains poorer than that of non-Indigenous Canadians in terms of higher rates of infant mortality, suicides, chronic diseases and infectious diseases, especially for those residing on reserves in rural areas (Richmond and Cook, 2016). The life expectancy rates of Indigenous peoples in Canada are lower than that of non-Indigenous peoples in Canada for both men (73 compared to 79) and women (78 compared to 83) (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2017).

Recognizing the historical and ongoing marginalization and disadvantage that First Nations peoples face in Canada is important for contextualizing the future discussion on achieving clean drinking water in First Nations communities. 

In November 2020, the federal government announced an additional $1.5 billion to help accelerate the work being done to end all long-term drinking water advisories on public systems on First Nations reserves, to better support the operation and maintenance of water systems, and to enable continued program investments in water and wastewater infrastructure. However, ending the long-term drinking water advisories and making progress towards the provision of safe drinking water in First Nations communities requires more than additional funding or technical and infrastructural interventions. Literature suggests that the water crisis in First Nations communities is reflective of a host of unresolved issues related to inequity, justice, and institutional trends, resulting in impacts that go beyond physical illness to affect the social, cultural, and spiritual health of First Nations in Canada (Basdeo and Bharadwaj, 2013). Therefore, water issues should not be addressed in isolation. There are growing calls for the government to expand its efforts from a focus on monetary investments on water and wastewater infrastructures towards a broader, more holistic approach that addresses issues related to water regulation as well as the underlying social, economic, and environmental factors that affect water provision, safety, and quality (e.g., housing, operator training and retention, and source water protection). It is also important to acknowledge that identifying and implementing sustainable solutions to safe drinking water in First Nations communities will require the government to engage in more reconciliatory acts with First Nations communities to develop long-term strategies that respect Indigenous knowledge and address the specific needs of each community to ensure reliable access to safe drinking water.