Governance of the Coral Reefs of the Galapagos Islands

The Galápagos Islands lie approximately 1000 kilometers west off the coast of Ecuador in South America. The archipelago is made up of 13 large islands, 6 small islands, and 42 islets. This part of the world is famous for its beauty, marine and terrestrial diversity, and the opportunities for learning it offers. The Galápagos were made famous by Charles Darwin, who studied the diverse birds found among the islands and found evidence for natural selection that led to his theory of evolution in 1835. Ironically, Darwin noted nothing of the corals in the area (Glynn et al, 2012).

The complexity, and beauty of this ecosystem is due in part to its location in the Pacific Ocean. These islands are located where several separate ocean currents converge. From the west the islands receive cool, nutrient-rich water from the Equatorial Undercurrent. From the south and east comes saline water from the Peru Oceanic Current, and from the north comes nutrient-poor, warm waters with the Panamá Flow. There are years when the warm currents from the north are particularly intense, known as "El Niño," which can cause severe disruption of ecological systems (Glynn et al, 2012). 

Marine Ecosystem Overview: Interactions and Prominent Species

According to Okey et al (2004), small pelagic fishes are abundant and supported by the cool nutrient rich waters. Prominent fish species include sardines, thread-herrings, anchovies, mackerel, lantern fishes, and many more. These small fish provide nutrients for higher tier predators, including sharks, tuna, wahoo, jacks, barracuda, toothed cetaceans, and more. The ocean currents carry abundant amounts of plankton that serve as the main source of primary production in these reefs, providing sustenance for many reef fishes. This plankton additionally supports populations of suspension and filter-feeding invertebrates such as barnacles, mollusks, and certain types of corals. A famous staple of the Galápagos Islands is the marine iguana. These iguanas dive and feed on algae found on the reefs. Other herbivorous species found in the area include damselfish, the parrotfish, and green sea turtles. Some of the more striking organisms found in this area include octopuses, the Galápagos sea lion, the Galápagos penguin, and the white-tipped reef shark (Okey et al, 2004). This overview hardly dents the surface as to what can be found in the complex marine ecosystems of the islands.

General Coral Importance

Coral reefs are one of the most vital marine ecosystems on Earth, as well as one of the most threatened. Coral reefs provide many ecosystem services that are essential to marine ecosystems as well as to humans. Coral reefs provide food for a large portion of the world's population, provide coastal protection for tropical islands, and are important sources of income due to appeal to tourists. According to West and Salm (2003), "the value of living resources (such as fisheries) and services (such as tourism returns and coastal protection) provided by reefs has been estimated at about $375 billion annually." A final service of coral reefs, and certainly one of the most important, is the habitat and protection they provide for a wide array of biological organisms.

Coral of the Galapagos Islands

As mentioned previously, the island's location in the Pacific creates a unique and important mix of factors that lead to a diverse and complex ecosystem. The waters surrounding the islands are characterized by a high species richness of corals, meaning there are many different species of coral found in the area (Glynn et al, 2012). Studies in the 1970s, pre 1982-83 El Niño, discovered 17 structural coral reefs on 10 islands and many coral communities on 14 islands, all of which were in a healthy state. Data gathered during the studies demonstrated evidence that the corals of the Galapagos thrived for several hundred years before the devastating El Niño event in the 80s, with coral growth appearing continuous for many, many decades prior. Some of the sampled colonies demonstrated uninterrupted growth for up to 441 years off of Floreana Island (Glynn et al, 2012). 

The Galápagos Islands have a unique history with humans. Historically, the islands lacked aboriginal populations, helping to explain the nearly untouched condition of the islands until recently. The island's first interacted with humans in the 16th century, when the islands were discovered. This period of time was characterized by pirates and whalers, who found resources and refuge on the islands. It was likely during this time the first invasive species were introduced including rats, goats, insects and some plants. Giant tortoises also became a precious resource during this period. Human settlement on the islands did not occur (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008).

The second historical period began with the colonization of the islands by the Ecuadorian government in 1832. It was during this period that human settlement began on the islands. The island's ecosystems experienced the first anthropogenic effects due to agriculture and livestock. The number of invasive species on the islands increased significantly during this period. Charles Darwin visited the islands during this time (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008).

The third historical period is characterized by conservation efforts beginning in 1959. It was during this period that the Galápagos National Park was created by the Ecuadorian government. Additionally, the Charles Darwin Foundation was created. Captive breeding of endangered species began and active efforts were enforced to control invasive species. In 1973, the islands were declared as a new province of Ecuador, which led to conflicts between conservationists and developers. Development on the islands increased and attracted mainland Ecuadorians, who immigrated and brought new rounds of invasive species with them (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008).

The final historical period is defined by the "conservation-development balance," (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008). This period began with the passing of the Galapagos Special Law, which then created the Galapagos Marine Reserve. A Galapagos Regional Plan was created in 2003 to reach a balance between conservation and economic growth on the islands (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008). The islands still remain in this fourth historical period as we continue to navigate the fine line between conservation and development. 

Tourism

Tourism has become a bustling economic venture for Galapagueños. Somewhat ironically, when the islands were named a national park in 1959, UNESCO suggested the creation of an ecotourism industry to help fund the park and protect the native species. The idea took off, and the number of tourists quadrupled annually between 1990 and 2009. Additionally, the 2007 declaration of a crisis brought even more visitors (Lu, Valdivia, & Wolford, 2013). With an increase in people on the islands, fuel, energy, and water consumption have all continued to increase (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008). The hotel lodging capacity rose by a factor of eight between 1982 and 2006. Tourism is extremely important to the islanders, employing 40% of local residents and constituting 65.4% of the island’s gross domestic product (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008).

Population Growth

The main source of population growth is due to migration from mainland Ecuador. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (2002) stated that the population growth rate was 5.9% between 1990 and 2001. A larger human presence on the islands means more invasive species, "The increasing array of invasive alien species has been recognized as the largest single threat to Galapagos biodiversity in the short term," (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008). An inventory taken reported 463 alien insect species and that non-native plant species outnumber the native species (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008). The Galápagos Special law was passed to curtail population growth, yet the population of undocumented persons has been growing. As the number of both legal and illegal residents increases on the islands, there is more "contamination and trash generation, use of resources (especially water), pressures on infrastructure and services such as health and education, conversion of wildlife habitat to housing and roads, and overall taxing the carrying capacity of such relatively small and fragile islands," (Lu, Valdivia, & Wolford, 2013). With a larger population also comes a higher demand for fossil fuels and a greater chance for an oil spill.

Climate Change

Large amounts of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere at rates far beyond what is natural due to anthropogenic actions. This has led to oceanic uptake of CO2 that lowers the pH of seawater, causing seawater to become more acidic. A lower pH reduces coral's abilities to create their calcium carbonate shells, which is crucial to the survival of certain coral species. In addition to seawater acidification due to climate change, corals of the Galápagos experience occasional warming events, known as El Niño Oscillation (ENSO). The ENSO warming event of 1982-83 proved deadly for much of the coral in the area, "Coral bleaching and mortality were severe throughout the islands, with overall 97% mortality at 14 surveyed sites," (Glynn et al, 2012). While there was another intense warming event in 1997-98, it was less devastating to corals. This is likely due to natural selection that granted these corals a higher tolerance of warmer waters, allowing them to survive the two warming events (Glynn et al, 2012).

The scale of governance of the Galapagos coral occurs at the national level. The Galapagos are a province of Ecuador, thus the governance of the island’s and their coral reefs occurs at the national level. However, at times this can cross into an international scale, for the water between the coast of Ecuador and the marine reserve are international waters. Any nation has a right to fish in these waters, however this can lead to attacks on the marine reserve when nations cross over the boundaries. This can lead to issues at the international scale.

Governance of the Galapagos Islands and their coral reefs is not a tragedy of the commons. However, while many actions have been taken to protect this fragile ecosystem, more must be done to avoid this resource system becoming a tragedy of the commons within the next few decades.

Declining coral health has been a concern for several decades now around the globe and on the Galápagos. The Ecuadorian government has taken steps to protect this landmark. In 1978, UNESCO designated the islands as a World Heritage Site, and 20 years later the Galápagos Marine Reserve was established. Coral health is closely monitored by biologists from the Charles Darwin Research Station. These surveys are important for they can quickly recognize and mitigate harmful stressors of the corals. Areas that exclude tourists and fishing also exist, known as exclusion zones. Coral collection is also prohibited unless for research purposes (Glynn et al, 2012).

Since 2000, a coastal use-zoning plan has been in place. This plan consists of varying levels of ocean and land use for tourism, fishing, and research purposes. Under this plan, 8% of the island's coastlines are "no-take" zones, meaning absolutely no entry is allowed except for scientific purposes. 10% of the coastlines are "non-extractive" areas, meaning tourism, recreation, and educational use of the area is permitted. A very large portion of the coastlines, 77%, are defined as "regulated extractive" areas where fisheries and recreational uses are allowed. The remaining 5% of the land falls under the control of local stakeholders who can choose how the land is used, known as special zones. As mentioned previously, the Charles Darwin Research Station monitors coral health related to these zones (Okey et al, 2004).

An additional protective measure is the Galápagos Special Law (GSL), passed in 1998 by the Galápagos Marine Reserve. The GSL granted the province special status. The law included severe migration restrictions and an inspection and quarantine system (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008). This law attempts to reduce the population growth rate and control the introduction of invasive species to the islands.

It can be very useful to analyze governance of a commons as a social ecological system (SES). This term was coined by Elinor Ostrom in 2009. A social ecological system can be defined as "integrated, complex systems that include social (human) and ecological (biophysical) subsystems in a two-way feedback relationship," (Berkes, 2015). The two subsystems may be linked by governance, ecological knowledge, institutions, environmental values, culture, and/or world views (Berkes, 2015). Using this as a base, Ostrom's framework consists of a resource system and units, users, and a governance system. The resource system and units is the specific environment that is associated with benefits for the actor groups, and the use of which may be associated with negative externalities. In simpler terms the resource system is the environmental commons under analysis. The users are the individuals, organizations, or nations that have developed arrangements to interact with the commons. Finally, the governance system is the institutional arrangements which may be rules or policies used by the actor group to interact with and govern the commons (Ostrom, 2009). Each component plays a very crucial role in the overall health of the social ecological system and can help determine if the situation is a tragedy of the commons (Hardin, 1968). Within the SES framework, Ostrom (2009) chose to ask the following: when will the users of a resource invest the time and energy to avert a tragedy of the commons? Theoretically, the answer is when the expected benefits of managing the resource outweigh the perceived costs of investing in better rules and norms (Ostrom, 2009).

In the case of the coral reefs of the Galápagos, the social ecological system and framework is complex. The resource system and units comprise the islands and reefs themselves, as well as all of the ecosystem services the reefs provide. As mentioned previously, the archipelago consists of 7995 km^2 off the west coast of South America. With such a large resource system, it can be difficult to define boundaries, effectively monitor the resource, as well as gain ecological knowledge. A unique difficulty with the Galapagos islands is their lack of aboriginal populations. A lack of aboriginal populations makes the ecological knowledge somewhat unique for the islands, for it does not go back centuries like the knowledge may for other commons. In the case of the Galápagos, there are currently two different governance systems. The provisional coastal use zoning plan enacted in 2000 and the Galapagos Special Law both comprise this component of the framework. These are both laws and/or rules created to govern the resource system, both described above. Lastly, the users and actors of this resource system are vast. The users are made up of the Charles Darwin Foundation, the Ecuadorian government, UNESCO, the Ministry of the Environment (ME) and the Junta. The Galapagos National Park Service (GNPS) is the executive branch of the ME and manages the protected areas. Fortunately for the Galapagos, the Charles Darwin Foundation has a deep understanding of the island's ecosystems and a focus on conservation and science that can aid in informing and educating Ecuadorian government officials and policy makers (Baine, Howard, Kerr, Edgar, & Toral, 2007). For this reason, the GNPS works closely with the Charles Darwin Foundation. Additionally, one of UNESCO's (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) goals within the organization is sustainable development as well as respect of shared values of a peoples (unesco.org). With these values in mind, UNESCO can provide guidance with respect to sustainable development and shared values that can lead to more effective governance. The Junta brings together representatives from different professions on the islands to discuss how best to manage the marine reserve (Lu, Valdivia, & Wolford, 2013). The users and actors created the previously mentioned components of the governance system.

When will the users of a resource invest the time and energy to avert a tragedy of the commons? This is a powerful questions that requires consideration of many factors. However, it has been demonstrated that the users of this particular resource have invested the time and energy into protecting it, seen by the Galapagos Special Law and coastal zoning plan. While time and energy has been invested to protect this resource, the current governance system may not be enough to effectively protect it in the coming decades that will experience more adverse affects of climate change, more tourists, and a larger population on the islands.

Tragedy of the Commons

The tragedy of the commons is an important concept to consider when analyzing social ecological systems. In 1969, Garrent Hardin created the concept, which would be analyzed for decades to come. It is the idea that individual users of a common resource act with self interest over the good of the commons. Hardin explains this concept with an example of herdsmans as the users and grazing land as the commons. Each herdsman wants to add an animal to their herd to graze the land, which they would individually profit from. However, each herdsman would do this to increase their own gain, at the expense of the grazing land. “Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit–in a world that is limited,” (Hardin, 1968, p. 1243-1248). This concept can be applied to any environmental commons, the Galapagos included. In the case of the Galapagos islands and their reefs, I do not believe the situation currently is a tragedy of the commons. However, with the current governance system in place, the corals of the Galapagos will continue to suffer from overfishing, invasive species, pollution, climate change, and the impacts from a growing population on the islands as well as tourism (Glynn et al, 2012). For the last several decades, the archipelago has been taken advantage of, despite the protections put in place. Tourism on the islands continues at high rates while population and development continues to grow. Illegal fishing occurs in the waters and climate change will continue to weaken the coral’s resilience. More must be done to protect this ecosystem while climate change worsens, tourist numbers increase, and population growth continues. If more is not done, this resource will become a tragedy of the commons.

Shifting Baselines

Another very important concept to consider when evaluating the state of environmental commons is the concept of shifting baselines. This concept was created by Daniel Pauly in 1995. This is the idea that gradual change within the environment occurs through generations, changing the norms or baselines of natural conditions. Pauly used fisheries as an example to demonstrate shifting baselines, “Every generation begins its conscious life by assessing the state of the world and society around it and using what it sees as a baseline to evaluate changes that occur subsequently. However, the baselines of the previous generations are commonly ignored and, thus the standard by which we assess change also changes,” (Pauly, 1995, p. 99). Bush, Restrepo, and Collins (2014) believe the Galapagos have experienced a shifted baseline. Their study found that pollen inputs into El Junco Crater Lake on the island of San Cristobal are at 0-2% today, compared to 20-45% seen in the fossil record. The loss in taxa that produce pollen on the island coincided with the introduction of horse and cattle that likely trampled the plant species, reducing their numbers considerably (Bush, Restrepo, & Collins, 2014). While this situation does not directly pertain to coral reefs of the islands, it is an important example of this concept. If there is any hope to restore these islands to their natural conditions, we must strive for historical baselines rather than shifted baselines. 

Ostrom's 8 Design Principles for Governing a Commons

Elinor Ostrom, in addition to her social ecological system framework, created a comprehensive design to govern commons (Ostrom, 1990). Her design consists of 8 principles. Several, but not all, will be discussed.

Principle Number 1: Clearly defined user and resource boundaries 

From much research, it appears that the coastal-use zoning plan enacted in 2000 defines users and resource boundaries. As mentioned previously, the zones consist of no-take zones, non-extractive zones, regulated extractive zones, and special zones. These zones are explicitly identified, with users clearly defined. The users have successfully accomplished Ostrom's first design principle.

1. Principle Number 2: Congruence of rules with local, social, and environmental conditions; benefits are proportional to inputs from users

Lu, Valdivia, and Wolford (2013) discuss local narratives of the emerging crisis on the islands. Five dominant narratives arose, one of which was “the problem is the 3%.” According to this study, many locals feel that the tourism industry is unfairly biased in favor of foreign companies. “For 30 years, large-scale, usually transnational, tourism interests have garnered disproportionate benefits from this unique ecosystem, and undermined local microenterprises and economies. Tourist dollars are funneled to large agencies whose floating hotels benefit people who do not live on the Islands, with an estimated 85% of this income leaving the Islands,” (Lu, Valdivia, & Wolford, 2013). This demonstrates that island locals do not feel they are receiving proportional benefits from this resource system, demonstrating a failure of Ostrom’s second design principle. 

Principle Number 3: Arrangements created are collectively created by those affected by rules

According to Lu, Valdivia, and Wolford (2013), management of the marine reserve is overseen by the Participatory Management Group, also called the Junta.” The Junta brings together representatives from the fishing, tourist, naturalist guide, science and education (CDF), and management (GNP) stakeholder groups, and meets approximately once a month to jointly make decisions about how to best manage the marine reserve,” (Lu, Valdivia, & Wolford, 2013). The Junta demonstrates an attempt at including locals in the decision making process, demonstrating some success of Ostrom’s third design principle. 

Principle Number 4: Users and resources are monitored

Another narrative that arose from the study by Lu, Valdivia, and Woldford (2013) was the issue of weak management. One component of the weak management system was the regulation of migration from the mainland. A migration control system was created by the Ecuadorian government to regulate movement of people to and from the islands via the Traffic Control Card. However, this new control does not stop illegal migration. According to one local, “the people who bring in such migrants will protect them and persecute any individual who threatens their presence on the islands: If we say anything about the illegals, there will be retribution from their families,” (Lu, Valdivia, & Wolford, 2013). It is clear that the government is attempting to monitor and manage the migration issue, however social norms and relationships must be incorporated into the regulation system in order to have more success. 

Vulnerabilities of the Galapagos

Although the Galapagos were deemed a marine reserve by UNESCO, it is still vulnerable to attacks. In 2017, Ecuador’s Armada stopped a Chinese fleet of 300 boats. The armada confiscated “300 tons of fish, including illegally caught tuna, and 6000 sharks, including threatened thresher sharks (Alopias pelagicus) and silky sharks (Carcharhinus falciformis) as well as endangered scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini)” (Alava & Paladines, 2017). According to Alava and Paladines (2017), the Ecuadorian government lacks the resources to monitor and protect the reserve from foreign vessels, and overall enforcement of restrictions is weak. While attempts have been made to monitor this resource system, failures have occurred at the expense of the environment. 

Community and Resource Management

In Berke’s book, he discusses the importance of community in governing the commons, stating that “community involves a set of people with some shared beliefs and stable membership…” (Berkes, 2015). This has posed an issue for some Galapagueños. According to Lu, Valdivia, and Wolford (2013), many interviewees felt that newcomers were the issue, for they “grew up on the continent and have a different perspective and way of life,” and were described as “lacking an environmental consciousness,” (Lu, Valdivia, & Woldford, 2013). While the Junta, mentioned previously, utilizes a participatory management strategy, it is clear that the islanders lack a sense of community. There appears to be a disconnect between older residents and newcomers from the continent. There is a lack of shared beliefs between all Galapagueños and true membership on the islands appears a sensitive subject. Berkes additionally mentions that “a sense of community is helped by trust, a history of social ties and a history of commons use,” (Berkes, 2015). Much of this does not currently exist on the islands, for older residents do not trust the newer resident and lack social ties with them. Additionally, there is not a history of commons use, which likely leads to more animosity, for oftentimes immigrants come to the islands for economic opportunity that stems from the unique environment. For more successful participatory management, collaboration between older residents and newer residents could prove helpful to reach a common base for all residents to work together from. 

Scale Related Issues

The attack by the Chinese fishing fleet demonstrates the difficulty of governing an environmental resource at this scale. While the Galapagos are governed at a national scale by the Ecuadorian government, issues at the international scale can arise as demonstrated by the Chinese attack. Another issue is Ecuador’s lack of resources to successfully monitor the resource system. While a large component of this is a lack of funding, it also becomes more difficult for a single body of governance to protect a resource the larger it gets. 

Continue surveying and monitoring corals

There are ways to protect the coral of the islands from future climate change and threats. Glynn et al (2012) applaud the efforts thus far, including the implementation of the Galapagos National Park Service as well as the declaration of the islands as a world heritage site and creation of the Galapagos Marine Reserve. These actions are encouraging, however more must be done. Continuing baseline surveys of the coral reefs by the Charles Darwin Research Station to quickly identify and manage any damage to the corals is crucial as well as stronger protections for recovering coral populations via enforcement of additional no take zones (Glynn et al, 2012). 

Reduce CO2 emissions

Many threats that currently face the marine ecosystems of the Galapagos will only worsen with time. One particular threat is recurrent ENSO events. The 1982-83 warming event had catastrophic effects, with massive coral die-offs in addition to population declines of many other marine species (Valle, 2012). More frequent and intense ENSO events will occur with climate change. Humans must reduce the amount of CO2 put into the atmosphere as well as the ocean to avoid future mass die offs of marine species. 

Education

Lu, Valdivia, and Wolford (2013) discuss the environmental narrative that arose from local Galapagueños that people lack education about the environment. Many locals feel that education can make a difference, and the community voiced a need for competent professionals in schools to educate the younger generations on how to interact with the environment. Additionally, education for older folks could be useful to teach newcomers “to think in a small island mentality” (Lu, Valdivia, & Wolford, 2013).

Reconnecting humans and nature

González, Montes, Rodríguez, and Tapia (2008) state that “breaking this nature vs. society dichotomy and building bridges between these two artificially separated worlds is essential if a broadly shared vision for the future of the archipelago is to be reached,” (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008). This idea is directly related to much discussion from Berkes. Berkes highlights the traditional mindset that “natural resources are assets for the creation of human satisfaction or utility….they are not desirable in themselves, but rather they are a means to an end,” (Berkes, 2015). However, this is just not the case. Humans and the environment are intimately connected, both humans and nature are constantly “interacting, co-evolving, and interdependent social-ecological systems,” (Berkes, 2015). Residents and developers of the Galapagos must abandon the development versus conservation battle, and adopt a “conservation for development” mindset (González, Montes, Rodríguez, & Tapia, 2008) that recognizes the maintenance of the natural world as a requirement rather than an option. Conservationists and developers must stop battling, and must instead work together to create sustainable development before it is too late. 

Managing tourism

As mentioned before, tourism funds the natural park but also degrades the environment, acting as a double-edged sword. De Groot discusses how changes in the way tourism is conducted on the islands is essential. Mass tourism, private yachts, small tourist boats, and guide quality all threaten the islands. De Groot (1983) proposes that more intensive training of guides must occur, along with the requirement that guides can speak both English and Spanish. More intensive training can inform guides on vulnerabilities of the islands, and therefore allow them to sustainably lead tours. Speaking both English and Spanish will ensure that the guides can effectively translate expectations to the tourists without any confusion. This reminded me of my personal experience at the Galapagos islands back in 2015. While with my group on a snorkeling tour, our guide was stepping on coral and picking up sea stars to show us. This inspired me to do this project, for I felt that was extremely disrespectful to the environment and I was truly taken aback.

Concluding Thoughts

Governing and protecting a resource as vast as the coral reefs of the Galapagos is not only possible, it is crucial. There are several ways to further protect the reefs, such as educating Galapagueños as well as developers on their surroundings and controlling tourist numbers. The most impactful changes that can be made is first to sever the “disconnect” between the Galapagueños and the islands, and to restore the connection that will further inspire protection of the beautiful environment. The second essential change is to combat the climate crisis to reduce future ENSO warming events, for if these continue, other efforts to protect coral will be far less impactful if corals cannot initially recover.

These islands and their diversity provide spectacular opportunities. They offer unique opportunities for education and science, opportunities for humans to connect with the environment, as well as prosperous economic opportunities. The Galapagos Islands are one of a kind, and their uniqueness must be protected not only for mankind's enjoyment, but for the protection of the multitude of diverse species that rely on these islands and their services to survive. It is not only the right thing to do, it is absolutely crucial for the survival of this slice of paradise on Earth.

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