Macaroni & Cheese
The Culinary Legacies of Race & Slavery in the United States
Introduction
Macaroni and cheese has long been a staple in American cuisine. Every American has an opinion on macaroni and cheese— how it should be prepared, and what it should look like. But where did this dish come from? Like all American dishes, its history is complicated.
As we dig deeper into the history of macaroni and cheese in the United States, it is revealed that there is much more to the story of this dish than first meets the eye. While many have heard the famous claim that Thomas Jefferson, Founding Father of the United States, invented the dish, he was not the one training to learn how to the meal in France or the one preparing it at his home in Virginia. The people he enslaved, specifically an enslaved chef named James Hemings, would be training in the art of French cooking to bring the dish back to the United States. This history, and the implications of it, will be explored in the following sections.
History of the Dish
The Forme of Cury, where the first recipe for macaroni and cheese was recorded (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Forme_of_Cury)
Macaroni and cheese has a long and complex history. The earliest recorded macaroni and cheese recipe can be found in the Forme of Cury, a European cookbook dated to 1390. This was the primary source for royal chefs across Europe this time, indicating that macaroni and cheese was present on royal dishes as early as the 14th century (Miller).
This is where Thomas Jefferson would experience the dish for the first time, at royal dinners during his time as Ambassador to France in the 1780's. He was so fascinated by the dish that he would purchase a pasta maker to bring back to the United States. However, Jefferson would not be the one using this pasta maker or preparing these new, French-inspired meals at his home in Virginia. Rather, he had an enslaved chef train in France to learn how to prepare such a meal. This is where James Hemings enters into this history.
James Hemings was born in 1765 to Elizabeth Hemings, an enslaved African American woman, and John Wayles, the white man who owned her. In 1773, Thomas Jefferson would inherit the entire Hemings family from John Wayles, his father-in-law. The Hemings family would be placed in many of the household positions within Thomas Jefferson's home at Monticello, including James Hemings who became Jefferson's personal attendant and later his barber (Monticello, 2019).
Jefferson's home on the Champs-Elysées (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hôtel_de_Langeac)
When Jefferson travelled to France in 1784 to serve as Ambassador to France, he brought James Hemings with him for "the particular purpose of learning French cookery," (Monticello, 2019). Hemings would become an apprentice in a French kitchen where he learned to prepare macaroni and cheese, as well as dishes like fries, waffles, and vanilla ice-cream. Once his training was complete in 1787, Hemings became the 'chef de cuisine' in Jefferson's home on the Champs-Elysées.
It is important to note that while in France, James Hemings was not the legal property of Thomas Jefferson. Rather, the laws of France prohibited slavery, and Jefferson was illegally enslaving Hemings abroad. Annette Gordon-Reed explores this fact, describing how enslaved African Americans in Hemings' position before had sued for their freedom and stayed in France as free men. She says that, "James Hemings's soul had a much greater chance to flourish in Paris than in his native country," (190).
But Hemings, rather than staying in Paris as a free man, negotiates with Jefferson for his freedom in the United States. Hemings agreed to return to Virginia and train a chef at Monticello in this new French-style of cooking in exchange for his freedom in the United States. Jefferson agreed, writing that, "I do hereby promise and declare, that if the said James shall go with me to Monticello in the course of the ensuing winter, when I go to reside there myself, and shall there continue until he shall have taught such person as I shall place under him for that purpose to be a good cook , this previous condition being performed, he shall be thereupon made free, and I will thereupon execute all proper instruments to make him free ,"(Agreement with James Hemings, 1794).
Archeological remains of the multi-burner stew stove, introduced by Hemings in 1794 (https://www.monticello.org/press/monticello-magazine/summer-2019/monticello-s-first-kitchen/)
So, Hemings returned to Monticello in 1794 and began to transform the kitchen there. He added the pasta maker purchased by Jefferson in France to make macaroni and cheese, as well as a new multi-burner stew stove (Monticello, 2019). He began training his brother, Peter, to prepare these new French-style dishes, including macaroni and cheese.
Hemings left Monticello in 1796 as a literate free man, with $30 to his name. He travelled to Baltimore, Philadelphia, and potentially even Europe to share his culinary skills with new kitchens. In 1801, Jefferson attempted to bring Hemings to the President's House to serve as his 'chef de cuisine. However, in October of 1801 Jefferson learned that Hemings's life had been tragically cut short, the result of a suspected suicide at the age of 36.
The culinary expertise of James Hemings dramatically shaped the growing American culinary landscape. His training in France brought new dishes, like macaroni and cheese, to the plates of elite, white Americans from across the United States who were dining with Thomas Jefferson. While these white party-goers may have credited Jefferson with the discovery of macaroni and cheese, it was the labor and expertise of James Hemings that was responsible for the dish's presence on their plates.
James Hemings was not the only African American who would impact modern American cuisine in this way. In fact, it was generations of African Americans, both free and enslaved, who created many of the dishes within the American culinary tradition. As Stephen Satterfield explores through his interviews in High on the Hog: How African American Cuisine Transformed America, African American chefs where creating and cultivating a new culinary culture even within bondage.
High on the Hog: How African American Cuisine Transformed America | Official Trailer | Netflix
In this short trailer for the series, you can get a glimpse of the vast influence that African American chefs had across American history. Satterfield explores a variety of dishes and regions, concluding that "the truth is, a lot of American food has its roots in African American food, traditions, and ingenuity."
Tellings of History
Macaroni and cheese is a truly American dish, with a long and complex history. Often times, the details of this history are not represented in quick tellings. Many Americans have heard the simple statement that 'Thomas Jefferson invented macaroni and cheese", which is simply not true. But, in many advertisements today, this is the quick telling that is used. The first example of this comes from a 2015 Kraft Homestyle Mac and Cheese advertisement, in which Thomas Jefferson is the central figure:
Kraft Homestyle Mac and Cheese Thomas Jefferson Commercial
This advertisement, produced by Kraft Heinz Company, clearly depicts Thomas Jefferson as the central figure in history of macaroni and cheese. His ride through the yard of this backyard barbecue to approve the Kraft Homestyle Mac and Cheese being served implies that he is the expert on the production of macaroni and cheese. However, this narrative creates a romanticized, fictitious story of Thomas Jefferson inventing the dish. By framing this story with Jefferson at the forefront, the stories of the enslaved chefs like James Hemings who are responsible for the culinary development of the dish are ignored. While it may be more catchy to have an advertisement with the Founding Father who every American will recognize at the center, this narrative normalizes the idea that it was Jefferson, not Hemings, creating American culinary culture in early America.
Budweiser advertisement, 1948 (https://envisioningtheamericandream.com/2014/02/18/mac-cheese-and-the-pursuit-of-happiness/)
Kraft Heinz Company is far from the only company to use this simple, Jefferson-centered narrative on the history of macaroni and cheese in their advertisements. This is a simple, eye-catching story to use, so it is common among American advertising campaigns. To the right you will see another example from Budweiser. This advertisement fails to even get the curated version of the story correct, depicting Jefferson serving a plate of spaghetti to guests dining at his home, Monticello. It's caption, "Our Third President was Our First Spaghetti Maker", while catchy, is completely incorrect. They are referencing the story often told about macaroni and cheese, but they do not correctly identify the dish or the person who was actually making and serving the dish at Monticello.
This is a key implication of telling the story of macaroni and cheese in a simplistic way. By simply saying that Thomas Jefferson is responsible for macaroni and cheese being in the United States, we are erasing the role that enslaved African Americans— namely James Hemings— played in introducing the dish. If companies want a catchy, eye-catching history to use in their advertisements, it is important that they include all of the necessary details and give credit where credit is due.
Across American Cultures
Macaroni and cheese is a staple food in culinary traditions across the United States. For some, the dish comes simply from a box of pasta and powdered cheese they pick up at the grocery store. For others, macaroni and cheese can be a baked culinary masterpiece that takes hours to prepare. Often times the dish one imagines when they hear the phrase 'macaroni and cheese' varies based on the individual's racial identity and cultural background.
What Miller describes as the 'soul-nourishing' version of macaroni and cheese (https://culturecheesemag.com/cheese-iq/side-of-soul/)
Within African American communities, this dish has taken on many roles in the culinary tradition. Since Emancipation, it has served as a celebratory dish, a convenient comfort food, and a meal stretcher (Miller). The most spectacular version of this dish is often saved for Sunday dinner— what Miller characterizes as a 'soul-nourishing' dish. This 'soul-food' version is prepared like a casserole, containing eggs, many cheeses, milk, sometimes meat and vegetables, finished off with a bread crumb topping.
Kraft advertisement in the Ladies' Home Journal, 1948
For white Americans, this dish also remains culturally significant. It makes appearances at summer barbecues and holiday dinners in white homes across the United States. However, it does not seem to hold the same level of cultural significance as the 'soul-food' version does in African American homes. Often the macaroni dishes created in white homes are as simple as the boxed version from the grocery store. Miller discusses this difference in writing about the African Americans he interviewed for his book, saying "they were convinced mac & cheese was something white people stole from us. I thought they were kidding, but they were like, 'No, it's like rock'n'roll — we started that.'"
And it's true, African Americans did start this. When we consider the role that enslaved African Americans — like James Hemings— played in learning this dish and bringing it the United States, it is easy to see that African Americans are responsible for its presence in the American culinary tradition today. While white Americans continue to enjoy this meal in many forms, this dish's history lies in the hands of African Americans.
Conclusion
Macaroni and cheese is a distinct dish within American culture, and its history speaks to the complexities of the greater history of the United States. From the influence of nations' abroad, through the hands of an enslaved African American, and to the plates of all Americans today, the development of this dish in many ways parallels the development of the United States.
Key concepts, like race and slavery, are intertwined with the story of macaroni and cheese in the United States. The institution of slavery impacted how this dish was introduced to the country, as it was the expertise of enslaved chefs like James Hemings that allowed the dish to be introduced to the nation. And, the dish's presence on American plates today can vary in taste and appearance depending on the racial and cultural identities of the person preparing it.
Bibliography
“Agreement with James Hemings, 15 September 1793,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-27-02-0127. [Original source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 27, 1 September–31 December 1793, ed. John Catanzariti. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997, pp. 119–120.]
Edelstein, Sally. “Mac & Cheese and the Pursuit of Happiness.” Envisioning The American Dream, 18 Feb. 2014, https://envisioningtheamericandream.com/2014/02/18/mac-cheese-and-the-pursuit-of-happiness/ .
Edgar, Gordon. “A Brief History of America's Appetite for Macaroni and Cheese.” Smithsonian Magazine, Smithsonian Institution, 29 May 2018, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/brief-history-americas-appetite-for-macaroni-cheese-180969185/ .
Fowler, Damon Lee. Dining at Monticello: In Good Taste and Abundance. Thomas Jefferson Foundation, 2005.
Gordon-Reed, Annette. “James Hemings: The Provincial Abroad.” The Hemingses of Monticello, Norton, 2008, pp. 169–190.
Kraft Heinz Company. “Kraft Homestyle Mac & Cheese and Thomas Jefferson.” 2015, https://Www.youtube.com/Watch?v=4vjpBkj5JMQ .
Miller, Adrian. Soul Food: The Surprising Story of an American Cuisine, One Plate at a Time. The University of North Carolina Press, 2013.
Miller, Adrian. This American Comfort Food Leads a Double Life. Charlotte Observer, 21 Nov. 2017, www.charlotteobserver.com.
Satterfield, Stephen. “Our Founding Chefs.” High on the Hog: How African American Cuisine Transformed America, season 1, episode 3, Netflix, 26 May 2021.
“The Culinary Legacy of James Hemings.” Monticello, 2019, https://www.monticello.org/press/monticello-magazine/summer-2019/the-culinary-legacy-of-james-hemings/ .