Kenya
Maasai tribe in East Africa
Way Back Then (Ancient History)
The Maasai warriors once roamed the savanna grasslands of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania as cattle and small stock herders. Their pastoralist livelihood greatly benefitted them; they simply went wherever nature will care for them. (Fratkin & Mearns, 2003)
Currently...
This is how they ended up from around the area where Sudan is located to central East Africa around 1750CE. In the 19th century, they even politically dominated their more populous agricultural neighbors in East Africa. (Fratkin & Mearns, 2003)
Turn of the 20th Century
Found on: https://www.blackhistorymonth.org.uk/article/section/african-history/the-colonisation-of-kenya/
This all changed at the turn of the 20th century when colonial rule was established from 1900 to 1963. During this time, through the treaties in 1904 and 1911, Kenyan Maasai lost 60% of their lands to British settlers. In addition to this, they were prohibited from selling livestock in British markets, restricted into the unproductive regions, and restricted from grazing their cattle on former lands converted to national game reserves. Consequently, these restrictions during the colonization period resulted in the transformation of their pastoralist lifestyle. (Fratkin & Mearns, 2003)
A History Of The Maasai People
Independence?
In 1963, following Kenyan independence, the Maasai faced competition for land with Kikuyu and Kamba farmers moving off the highlands as their populations increased. These are the Maasai’s populous agricultural neighbors who pitied pastoralist concerns during colonial and post-independence rule. The loss of land and competition plays a significant role in the livelihoods of these pastoralists and warriors and lies the foundation of all that is to follow in the Maasai’s tale. (Fratkin & Mearns, 2003)
Found on: https://afrika-news.com/jomo-kenyatta/
It was difficult for the Maasai to reclaim their land as the Kenyan President Jomo Kenyatta created a settlement scheme, where the government would buy the reclaimed land to sell and lease to its citizens and other settlers. The government even encouraged its citizens and landowners to create semi-private leasing companies to sell and lease their land as well (Hughes, 2013).
Other than elite members of the community, the Maasai did not benefit from these schemes. Those who profited from these schemes were the government and the president’s ethnic group, the Kikuyu. The Maasai built resentment towards the government for how they were handling their land. It forced the Maasai people to get loans from banks to buy back their land within these ranches. For the land that the Maasai were able to claim back, such as the Loita Forest, they had to defend. The Purko Maasai cabinet minister William Ole Ntimama and the Narok County Council wanted to exploit the Loita Forest for tourism, but the Maasai has been successful in defending the forest (Hughes, 2013).
Found on: https://www.conservationmagazine.org/2012/09/what-tragedy-whose-commons/
The reason why the government did not honor the Maasai people’s right to their land is to avoid “Tragedy of the Commons.” The Kenyan government believed that the issues with overgrazing and misuse of resources was due to the Maasai’s pastoralist ways. However, it couldn't all be blamed on their way of life (Hughes, 2013).
Found on: https://www.proudtanzaniasafaris.com/drought-pushes-kenyas-maasai-to-mix-cattle-with-crops/
Between the 1960’s and 1980’s, there were periods of severe droughts that affected the vulnerable Maasai people. They were forced to overwork the land they owned, which resulted in loss of vegetation and soil erosion. This made it less effective to support the livestock that the Maasai had. Some decided to migrate to Tanzania in search for viable land, others were forced to sell their land and go into bankruptcy to pay off bank loans. During this time it was not uncommon for the Maasai men to develop drinking problems due to all the pressure put on them (Hughes, 2013)
Livelihoods & Politics
Photographs of Maasai protesting in 2004
In August 2004, Maasai community members launched a campaign in Kenya for the return of lands that were allegedly stolen from them. The campaign was launched on Friday, August 13, 2004, roughly a century after the first Anglo-Maasai Agreement. The plan was to have a series of demonstrations that would conclude with a presentation of a petition to the Kenyan and British governments. The petition would demand: 1) return of allegedly stolen lands and 2) financial compensation for trauma of land loss and underdevelopment of Maasai.
The focus was on the return of Laikipia, the two-million-acre site of the former northern Maasai Reserve, which the Maasai willingly ceded their territory according to the second agreement of 1911. Over the last century, the campaign of 2004 was the fourth time that the Maasai had challenged the loss of Laikipia and other lands. (P. Kantai, 2007)
Result of 2004 Political Campaign
The Maasai did this accordingly to the expiration of a 99-year lease in which the Maasai signed away land to British settlers a century ago. However, the Kenyan government argues it cannot due to several things:
(1) It could destabilize relations among Kenya’s more than 40 ethnic groups. (2) It is possible that the lease is actually 999 years. Even if it is 99 years, the agreement states clearly that the land comes back to the Republic of Kenya as government land, and then the government chooses. (3) Ranch owners and farmers in the area pump big money into the national and local economies through their eco-tourism and tours.
However, the Maasai will continue to fight and challenge what they believe are historical injustices in land distribution.
(Voice of America)
Some articles to read if you are interested in further reading of various international news sources regarding the narrative of Maasai 2004 protests:
As a result of the colonization era, it is evident that the Maasai have undergone a transformation. Their culture is largely tied to their pastoralist lifestyle and the land. Losing their land is losing their identity and lifestyle. These transformations presented themselves in venues that are not traditionally their own. For instance, young men are looking for an income by going into Nairobi, for work like bodyguards; and actually, they view cultivation as an unattractive way of life (McCabe et al. 2014). In addition to this, through government intervention, their lands has been subsidized and through foreign intervention as in USAID and World Bank, there were development policies that resulted in a transformation of their lifestyle. These development policies included building dams, wells, and other programs to increase livestock productivity. (Fratkin & Mearns, 2003)
Climate Change in Kenya
The contributions to greenhouse gas emissions from Africa as a whole are minimal. However, Africa bears some of the greatest impacts of climate change, most notably in the equatorial region (Kogo B. et al., 2020).
Kenya, specifically, is affected by seasonal changes in precipitation and temperatures of varying severity and duration (Kogo B. et al., 2020). These climate change episodes present themselves in multiple forms. All of which are experienced by the Maasai people.
Historical Climate Trends:
From 1985-2015, the temperature increased by 0.34 degrees celsius on average per decade in Kenya (USAID, 2018).
Within the last 50 years, rainfall patterns have become increasingly irregular and more variable across Kenya (Kogo B. et al., 2020).
Occurrence of drought in Kenya is almost annually now compared to previous 20 year long spans (Kogo B. et al., 2020).
In the last century, there has been a 66% loss in glacial volume (USAID, 2018). Mount Kenya is one such region experiencing dramatic glacial loss, having impacts on Maasai people.
World Bank Visits Mount Kenya:
Mount Kenya: A View of Climate Impacts and Opportunities
Maasai Perceptions of Climate Change
In a survey of 50 Maasai households, several areas of concern regarding climate change were identified. As a whole, the Maasai people perceive climate change to be "one of the greatest threats" to their livelihood.
The three most pressing issues are droughts and famines, inadequate rainfall, and and too much sun. Additionally, the Maasai people have perceived a large increase in daytime temperature in the last 20 years (Filho et al, 2017).
Another survey showed that the majority of Maasai people cannot explain what the term "climate change" means, but that they are very aware of the changes occurring in their environment (Nnko et al, 2021).
Reactions to Changes in Climate
In the past, adaptation strategies such as transhumance and herd-splitting helped the Maasai people cope with environmental challenges. However, current changes in population, soil nutrients, climate variability, and natural vegetation render these strategies insufficient (Filho et al, 2017).
Maasai women assembling beehives. ( Felipe Rodriguez. )
Today, many Maasai people have abandoned livestock-keeping in order to make a living from other occupations, such as beekeeping, mining, or farm forestry. In one survey of 136 Maasai individuals, every single respondent reported that they'd made changes to their diet because of livestock depletion (Nnko et al, 2021).
Additionally, the past three decades have seen a trend of Maasai people migrating to urban areas.
Migration as a Survival Strategy
Since the 1990s, Maasai youth have been migrating to urban areas.
Migration poses both risks and benefits. There are more economic opportunities in urban areas, but the cost of living is higher. Maasai migrants report experiencing oppression, exploitation, segregation, and a higher rate of crime victimization.
(Munishi, 2013)
Gladys Sekento moves in search of food
Looking Forward: What Does the Future Hold for the Maasai Communities of Kenya?
A long history of marginalization of the Maasai people has left them disadvantaged in terms of land, food, and education. However, this community has displayed remarkable resilience in the face of adversity. They have successfully adapted to the influences of the modern world while retaining their traditions.
Now, however, climate change is jeopardizing the Maasai peoples' ability to keep livestock, which is a fundamental part of their culture.
As more and more Maasai individuals abandon pastoralism, the question of whether it is a sustainable livelihood becomes increasingly important. The Maasai tribe is in a tough spot, being forced to revise their ways of living, trying to find a balance of survival and tradition.
However, the past disenfranchisement faced by the Maasai does not need to define their future. Climate change certainly poses new threats, but certain adaptation measures may help to mediate their effects and preserve the livestock.
These adaptation measures include water harvesting and storage, improved education, the use of hay to feed livestock, and the diversification of livestock.
However, the abandonment of pastoralism may be an adaptation measure on its own. From a Western perspective, it is impossible to truly understand the importance of this practice for the Maasai communities. However, their resilience in the past indicates that they are willing to sacrifice some traditions to preserve others, and many Maasai people have already engaged in other forms of sustaining themselves.
It cannot be said whether or not the Maasai "should" aim to continue their pastoral ways or not, but there are strategies that can help them either way.
References
Filho, W.L., Nzengya, D., Muasya, G., Chemuliti, J., Kalungu, J.W. (2017). Climate change responses among the Maasai community in Kenya. Climatic Change, 145, 71-83.
Fratkin, E., & Mearns, R. (2003). Sustainability and pastoral livelihoods: lessons from East African Maasai and Mongolia. Human organization, 112-122.
Government, Maasai, Ranchers Clash Over Land in Kenya. (2004, August 30). Voice of America. https://www.voanews.com/archive/government-maasai-ranchers-clash-over-land-kenya-2004-08-30
Hughes, L. (2013). Land Alienation and Contestation in Kenyan Maasailand. Conference Paper. https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/8915/HUGHES_0880.pdf?sequence=1
Kogo, B., Kumar, L., & Koech, R. (2020). Climate change and variability in Kenya: A review of impacts on agriculture and food security.B. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23, 23-43. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00589-1
McCabe, J. T., Smith, N. M., Leslie, P. W., & Telligman, A. L. (2014). Livelihood Diversification through Migration among a Pastoral People: Contrasting Case Studies of Maasai in Northern Tanzania. Human organization, 73(4), 389–400. https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.73.4.vkr10nhr65g18400
Munishi, E.J. (2013). Rural-urban migration of the Maasai nomadic pastoralist youth and resilience in Tanzania: Case studies in Ngorongoro District, Arusha Region and Dar es Salaam City. German Institute for Environmental Social Sciences and Geography.
Nnko, H.J., Gwakisa, P.S., Ngonyoka, A., Estes, A. (2021). Climate change and variability perceptions and adaptations of pastoralists' communities in the Maasai Steppe, Tanzania. Journal of Arid Environments, 185.
USAID. (2018, July 27). Climate risk Profile: Kenya. Retrieved April 23, 2021, from https://www.climatelinks.org/resources/climate-risk-profile-kenya
