Constructing Nature: The Emerald Necklace
How Boston's parkway system set the standard for urban planning
The nineteenth century was marked by the Industrial Revolution and mass immigration. In about 130 years, the United States expanded from 4 million to 106 million people. Boston experienced rapid urbanization, as did many other cities. This made for terrible living conditions such as contaminated drinking water and disease from waste management. The public pushed for green space for the health of urban populations in what became known as the nineteenth century parks movement. The City of Boston created a park commission to establish a park system and fix sewage problems in the Back Bay Fens (Eisenman, 2013). They enlisted the help of Frederick Law Olmsted, who would eventually create an elaborate park system in Boston that would alter urban planning.
Creating the Emerald Necklace
Frederick Law Olmsted Sr (1822-1902) was known as the "Father of Landscape Architecture". He is responsible for the design of many famous parks, such as Yosemite, Niagra Falls, and Central Park. Born in 1822, he was one of the leaders of the conservation movement in America. Influenced by Lancelot "Capability" Brown, his goal was to create large landscapes that were accessible to anyone and protected natural feautures (Carr, 2016).
Olmsted initially got involved with Boston planning because of flooding from the Charles River and sanitation issues. A tidal flat known as the Back Bay Fens received raw sewage that was carried out to sea when the tide fell. The sewage killed the ecology of the original salt marsh and posed health issues to the population of Boston.
Olmsted decided he would create a tidal marsh. 2 1/2 acres of land was planted with marsh grasses, shrubs, and other vegetation (Eisenman, 2013). As far as we know, this was the first attempt to construct a wetland.
Olmsted also appealed to the Boston Park Commission for Muddy River to be included in the plan, due to unsanitary conditions from stagnant water (Eisenman, 2013). The Back Bay Fens and Muddy River projects were created over two decades (1880's-1890s).These developments were the first projects for an expanded park system, which would later be referred to as the "Emerald Necklace".
Olmsted, with the help of Calvert Vaux, had found great success in the creation of Central Park. However, Olmsted recognized that an isolated greenspace had limitations, so he wanted to create a park system of "hubs and links". He felt parks should be linked to increase accessiblity (Eisenman, 2013). This was especially important in Boston at the time because of social division from increased immigration. The city was also overcrowded and susceptible to disease, so Olmsted recognnized that having more open space would be beneficial for public health.
From an ecological standpoint, the links helped to combat habitat fragmentation. This made it more feasible for wildlife to survive in urban areas. Today, the eastern red fox, white-tailed deer, muskrats, snapping turtles, coyotes, and about 250 different bird species reside in the Emerald Necklace (Eisenman, 2013).
"No single park would provide people with all the beneficial influences of nature" - Olmsted
Construction of the parkway was no easy feat. Land had to be obtained through eminent domain, farmlands cleared and replanted, and water bodies filled in. In 1895, after approximately twenty years of work, the Emerald Necklace was finished (O'Connell, 2001).
Restoration Initiatives
Creating a salt marsh within a city took careful planning. A gate chamber was installed to regulate the water level so that marsh vegetation could exist. Freshwater was diverted away from the Muddy River and Stony Brook, and flowed into the Charles River directly instead. Charles Sprague Spragent was called upon to advise on vegetation. Salt-meadow grass, Spartina patens, and salt-marsh cordgrasss, Spartina alterniflora, are just a few of the selected plant species that were planted in the constructed salt marsh (Egan, 1990).
Unfortunately, the salt water marsh only lasted for about 15 years. In 1910, a dam was placed on the Charles River that forced freshwater into the marsh, ruining the salt water ecosystem (Egan, 1990). Workers started dumping the debris from subway excavations in the Bay. Lack of management has also led to phragmites, an invasive reed species, suffocating the aquatic habitats along the Emerald Necklace. Today, the Back Bay Fens no longer look nor function how Olmsted had intended.
Back Bay Fens in 1935 vs.1997. Notice the wheat-colored phragmites that have overtaken the riverway (O'Connell, 2001).
Neglect and disregard for nature continued to plague the Emerald Necklace. At one point, a section of the Riverway was channeled underground for a Sears Parking lot (O'Connell, 2001). Overpasses and traffic have congested connection areas of the Emerald Neckace, such as Charlesgate Park. The decline of the Emerald Necklace since its creation is a reminder of how important science communication is. Few realized how important green space was for not only wildlfe, but for the physical/mental state of humans as well.
Luckily, the many benefits of having green space was finally recognized and the Emerald Conservancy was established in 1998. The Conservancy educates the public by holding events and youth programs to teach environmental education to all ages. The Charlesgate Park is being reinvigorated, so that more parts of Boston are acessible on foot. Other ongoing projects include removing invasive species, such as phragmite, or Japanese Knotweed which is taking over a woodland along Olmsted Pond. Check out their website below to learn more about current projects!
"Jewels" of the Necklace
Boston Commons
This was the first public park in the United States. It was also the only green space in Boston for 200 years. Since 1877, the public has enjoyed taking a ride out on the swan boats in the summer. In the winter, visitors can ice skate on Frog Pond.
Back Bay Fens
The surrounding area inlcudes war memorials, athletic facilities, and the Fenway Victory Garden which was started during World War II for food cultivation. Another landscape architect, Arthur Shurchiff, designed the rose garden which boasts more than 1,500 plants of 200 different varieties.
The Riverway
Formerly a carriage path, this tree-lined pathway connects Olmsted Park and the Back Bay Fens.
Olmsted Park
Olmsted's design of Leverett Pond included islands for aesthetic value, but also to serve as breeding areas for waterfowl. Despite being in the middle of the city, Ward's pond is a secluded, heavily-wooded area for wildlife to seek quiet. A nearby meadow serves as a habitat for bees, butterflies, and other insects.
Jamaica Pond
The only large freshwater pond in the city, and Olmsted felt it was the perfect place for a park. Few changes were made to the landscape.
Arnold Arboretum
In 1878, Charles Sprague Sargent enlisted Olmsted to help him establish an arboretum, a collection of trees and shrubs, from around the world. It took them four years to convince the park commission that the arboretum should be included in the park sytem. In 1882, an agreement was made where the City of Boston would own the land and lease it to Harvard University for one dollar a year for a thousand years. Today, it is 265 acres of land showcasing rare and exotic trees in the Explorer's Garden. The highest point in the Emerald Necklace, Peter's Hill, is great for taking in the Boston skyline.
Franklin Park
Originally called West Roxbury Park, the name was changed to Franklin Park in the hopes that funding could be obtained from the Benjamin Franklin Estate. Funding was not secured, but the name stuck and construction on the 500 acres of land began in 1885. A 65 acre oak forest is an excellent example of an urban woodland. Visitors can see exciting animals at the Franklin Park Zoo, consisting of 72 acres, or enjoy lunch at picnic tables on Schoolmaster Hill, named after Ralph Waldo Emerson. One of the only structures that Olmsted designed, Overlook Shelter Ruins, is located here. Famous musicians, such as Duke Ellington, have performed here.
Public Health Benefits of Green Space
Having green space in cities has been proven to improve public health. Vegetation helps to improve air quality by decreasing air pollutants through carbon storage. The vegetation also helps to combat heat waves, which the elderly are especially vulnerable to. In fact, the presence of urban parks reduces city temperature by 1 degree Celsius on average. Nature also promotes active lifestyles. Lack of physical activity is the fourth leading cause of mortality globally. Having aesthetically pleasing routes makes the public more likely to engage in active transport or leisure activities (biking, running, walking, etc). Physical activity decreases obesity and cancer risk, and improves cardiovascular health (World Health Organization, 2016).
Socially, it makes people feel safer and more connected to their community. Studies have shown that unmaintained vegetation reduced feelings of security in commmunity members because it gives criminals more places to hide. Maintained vegetation has the opposite effect. Having a nearby open space also fosters a sense of belonging, and results in neighbors being more likely to help one another (World Health Organization, 2016).
Green space also improves mental health, and has been known to decrease stress, risk of depression, schizophrenia, and other mental disorders.
Relationship between green space and risk of developing a psychiatric disorder in Denmark.
Having natural environments within cities is important for public health, and should be a priority in urban planning. Green space is not only valuable for recreation; it helps to fight the negative consequences of climate change, such as extreme heat and poor air quality (Douglas, Moothart, & Cogliano, 2018).
Looking to the Future
Due to climate change, sea level rise is an issue that many coastal cities have to plan for. Boston is the 8th most vulnerable city to coastal flooding. According to Douglas et al., 2018, the amount of land within the Boston Harbor domain that is vulnerable to coastal floods will almost double by 2030. Green space could be used as a tool to combat storm surge. For example, wetlands are effective at slowing wave action.
Predicted flooding extent for 2030 and 2070 in Boston Harbor Domain (Douglas et al., 2018)
Open space is important for mitigating coastal flooding, but environmental planners also need to think about how to preserve these areas. Storm surge can disrupt fragile urban ecosystems. Furthermore, green space is important for public health. Some have suggested a harbor barrier which would help to save open spaces. However, further research has shown that a barrier would be ineffective and costly. Construction of a harbor barrier would also negatively affect open spaces. Other options include beach nourisment such as dune restoration and sea walls. Engineered structures such as dikes and dams could also help against storm surge.
Conclusion
Olmsted's parkway design concept was an influence for many other cities. For example, the Cleveland Metroparks are often referred to as Cleveland's Emerald Necklace.This parkway is made up of 14 woodlands that total about 20,000 acres (McMahon, 2000). Boston set the standard for urban planning. Constructing nature in cities is important for both wildife and the well-being of the public. As a society, we must work to continue to preserve and create greenspaces in urban areas. Furthermore, as we anticipate changing coastlines, we must think carefully about urban planning and the role green infrastructure plays in our future.
References
Engemann, K., Pederson, C.B., Arge, L., Tsirogiannis, C., Mortensen, P.B., Svenning, J. (2019). Residential green space in childhood is associated with lower risk of psychiatric disorders from adolescence into adulthood. PNAS, 116(11), 5188-5193. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1807504116
Carr E, (2016). Geniuses of place. Nature, 535, 35-36.
Douglas, E.M., Moothart, E., Cogliano, G. (2018). Boston’s Open Space and Sea Level Rise.
Egan, D. (1990). Historic initiatives in ecological restoration. Restoration & Management Notes, 8(2), 83-85. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43439831
Eisenman, T.S. (2013). Frederick Law Olmsted, green infrastructure, and the evolving city, 12(4).
McMahon, E.T. (2000). Green infrastructure. Planning Commissioners Journal, 37.
O'Connell, K. (2001). Mending the necklace. Landscape Architecture, 91(7), 36-93. Retrieved November 14, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44674880
World Health Organization. (2016). Urban green spaces and health. https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/321971/Urban-green-spaces-and-health-review-evidence.pdf?ua=1
