Housing Assessment for Franklin County, Pennsylvania

The Center for Land Use and Sustainability (CLUS) at Shippensburg University partnered with  Franklin County Planning Department  to complete a housing assessment, which is available as a  detailed report . This story map presents the main findings.

Housing is Central to American life

For families, not only does it provide shelter, but it also serves as a principal source of wealth and the locus of their daily lives, social relations, and aspirations. For local governments, the maintenance of property values is critical, as property taxes are an important source of revenue. At the same time, the cost-effective provision of local government services to residential areas remains important. Leading housing issues include housing affordability, fair housing, the age and quality of housing stock, accessible housing, housing for distinctive populations, and homelessness. In recent years, affordability has become a pressing issue, with median house prices and median rents increasing faster than incomes.

Housing is a Legal Imperative.

There is a mandate for Pennsylvania counties and municipalities to address housing issues. The Municipal Planning Code (Act 247) (MPC 2022) states that comprehensive plans "shall include a plan to meet the housing needs of present residents and those anticipated" (Sect. 301.2.1). In preparing such plans, they shall include studies and analysis of housing (Sect. 301.2).

Franklin County is undergoing a transformation with implications for housing.

For much of its history, Franklin County was characterized by traditional Pennsylvania small towns amidst the bucolic agricultural landscape of the Cumberland Valley, framed by South Mountain and Blue Mountain. Even as the attractive, rural character remains, cities and towns have grown, and the economy and workforce have diversified, first into manufacturing and, in recent decades, toward transportation and warehousing, as well as an assortment of other activities, including health care and education. Sitting astride the Interstate 81 corridor and at the western edge of Megalopolis, the county has varying levels of accessibility to the large metropolitan areas on the Eastern Seaboard. All of this has brought sustained growth and has transformed Franklin County into a diverse, vibrant, and officially designated metropolitan area. This expansion and transformation necessitate a thorough inventory and assessment of housing characteristics, needs, market dynamics, and other factors in order to preserve the county's economic opportunity, environmental quality, and high quality of life.

From 2010 to 2020, Franklin County was the thirteenth-fastest growing county in the Commonwealth, increasing from 149,618 to 155,932 people, a 4.2% increase. Much of this growth occurred along the I-81 corridor. Within the county, Greene Township grew the most, adding 1,736 new residents - a growh rate of 10.4%. Some municipalities lost population during this time period, including Orrstown Borough, Quincy Township, and Mercersburg Borough. In future decades, Franklin County will have a larger and older population. Franklin County is projected to have 163,00 people in 2030, with 22.4% of those aged 65 and above. In 2040, there are projected to be 171,000 people, with 22.8% aged 65 and above. By 2040, Franklin County is expected to add 8,400 new housing units.

Franklin County's population is aging. In 2009, the population of those 65 and older was 24,679, which accounted for 16.5% of the population. In 2019, that number jumped to 31,211, accounting for nearly 20.1% of the population.

Franklin County has become slightly more racially and ethnically diverse between the years 2010 and 2020. In 2010, the non-Hispanic white population accounted for 92% of the population before dropping 5.7% to a total of 86.3% by 2020. Non-Hispanic Blacks made up 3.1% of the population in 2010, increasing slightly to 3.4% in 2020. The biggest absolute population increase was in the Hispanic community, which grew by 4,326, going from 4.3% to 6.9% of the county's population. As of 2020, in absolute terms, Chambersburg has the largest Hispanic population in the county, with 5,254 people (24%) of Hispanic or Latino ancestry or origin, nearly half (48.8%) of the entire population of Hispanic and Latino ancestry or origin in the county.

There is tremendous diversity in household composition and structure in the county. Over half (55.5%) of the population are married couple householders, but a notable statistic is the number of single female householders. Single female householders comprise 24% of the population, and of that 24%, 13% are living alone. Male householders with no spouse or partner present made up 15.7% of the population, and cohabiting couples accounted for 6.5% of the population.

The median household income for Franklin County as a whole is $63,420, which is very close to the national average of $64,994. In terms of income distribution, the majority of households (62%) earned up to $75,000, while 38% earned over that amount. The 2020 poverty rate in Franklin County was 8.9%. For households that own their housing, the poverty rates was only 2.4%, while for renters it was 12.2% (2019). Poverty rates vary widely across both townships and boroughs, ranging from a low of 3.5% in Montgomery Township to a high of 16.2% in Fannett Township.

Explore a Map of Median Houshold Income

Residents in Franklin County are employed in a number of industries (the type of activity at a person’s place of work) performing a number of different occupations (the kind of work a person does to earn a living). Across all industries, the 2021 average wage in Franklin County was $49,287, below the state average wage of $64,698. The top three industries employing Franklin County residents are:

• Educational services, and health care and social assistance (employing 22% of workers)
• Manufacturing (employing 16% of workers)
• Retail trade (employing 12% of workers)

The top three occupations of workers in Franklin County are:

• Management, business, science, and arts occupations (31% of workers)
• Sales and office occupations (23% of workers)
• Production, transportation, and material moving occupations (19% of workers)

Of the more than 65,000 housing units in Franklin County, 92.3% of housing units are occupied, compared to the statewide average occupancy rate of 88.8%. Of all the occupied units, 71.2% are owner-occupied and 28.8% are renter-occupied. The share of owner-occupied units is also slightly higher than the state average of 68.9%.

Single-family detached dwellings are the dominant occupied housing unit type in Franklin County (67.1%). Single-family dwellings are the overwhelming majority in many municipalities. One-unit attached dwellings (which include townhomes and rowhouses) make up 12.3% of units and are more prevalent in the boroughs and densely settled townships. Only 9% of housing units in the county consist of apartments with two or more units. Mobile homes are clearly the leading alternative to single-family houses.

As noted earlier, Franklin County is dominated by owner-occupied housing (70.9%) and at rates slightly greater than those for both the country and the state at large. The median value of owner-occupied housing in the county is $186,300. The median values in all the boroughs and three of the townships are lower than this. For the other 12 townships, median values are highest in tiny Warren Township ($270,800, but with only 328 people) and Antrim Township ($216,000). When considering housing affordability, a rule of thumb is that monthly owner costs should not exceed 30%. In Franklin County, we found that 18% of owner-occupied households exceeded this threshold and would be considered cost-burdened.

Explore a Map of Median Home Value for Owner-Occupied Housing Units

For rental properties, the median gross rent in 2021 was $905, an increase over previous years. Rising rents are a key concern in the more populous municipalities, which also happen to have greater proportions of renter-occupied housing. In these areas, particularly Chambersburg ($845), Waynesboro ($862), and the close-in areas of the adjacent townships, rising rents impact the largest number of households. Just over half (54.8%) of rental units charge monthly rents ranging from $500 to $999. Only 5.7% of monthly rents in Franklin County exceed $1,500 per month, whereas at the state level, 14% do. In terms of cost-burdened rentals, 40.4% of rental units have tenants paying 30% or more of their income allocated to rent. Still, this compares favorably to the 47.8% of rental units statewide.

For residents looking to buy a home in Franklin County, there are indications that the housing market is becoming increasingly competetive. Median prices for all houses sold (66.4% of all housing units) increased dramatically from $149,900 in 2015 to $193,450 in 2020. In terms of days on the market, there was a precipitous decline from 135 days (2015) to just 57 days (2020). Also reflecting a tighter market, "sold prices" as a percentage of "original listing prices" increased across the time period. These trends have continued into 2022.

The housing ecosystem is made of a complex network of private, public, and non-profit sector entities, programs and policies (Landis and LeGates, 2000:228).  The housing ecosystem encompasses institutions, programs, funding, and people. In Franklin County, the leading institutions and programs include:

• Franklin County Human Services Information and Referral (specifically the  CommunityConnections and Housing Navigation Coordinator ): The leading informational and referral service for a wide variety of human services, including housing.
•  The Franklin/Fulton Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities  program supports “what is important to people with disabilities and their families, who are striving for an everyday life,” including access to housing.
• Franklin County Redevelopment Authority: The Franklin County Redevelopment Authority has been charged with the initiative of redeveloping property within Franklin County.
• South Central Community Action Program (SCCAP):   SCCAP  provides a variety of human services, including housing-related programming.
• Franklin County Housing Authority (FCHA):  FCHA  provides affordable public housing, manages Section 8 housing, and a range of complementary social services.
• Luminest: Formerly Valley Community Housing Authority,  Luminest  is a non-profit that develops affordable housing in Franklin County.
• See the full report for a listing of other major stakeholders and programs.

There are 36 housing-related facilities, including shelters, income-based housing, income-based senior housing, and transitional housing. These range tremendously in size, location, clientele, management/ownership, and other characteristics. There are well over 700 units across these facilities.  See the full report for detailed listings, and explore the map below.

Explore the map of housing-related facilities in Franklin County

“It is not a bubble, it is really about the fundamentals...not enough houses, and huge numbers of people wanting homes.” – Jenny Schuetz, Brookings Institution

Zoning related changes that may facilitate construction of affordable housing:

• Reduce amount of land that is zoned exclusively for single-family detached dwelling units. More areas should allow for multi-structures including apartments and townhouses to be mixed in with single family dwellings.  Make such uses “use by right."
• In areas with single-family detached dwelling units, reduce minimum lot sizes.
• Allow for more mixed-use zoning that allows a mix of residential and commercial uses.
• Reduce barriers to cluster zoning so that it is procedurally easy to accomplish as conventional site design. 
• Allow smaller setback requirements and innovative configurations.  Consider “zero-lot lines” or “build to” setbacks.
• Provide a planned residential development (PRD) zone in zoning ordinances to allow for creative / innovative projects to be proposed. 
• Modify zoning codes to provide for traditional neighborhood development (TND).
• Loosen up home occupation regulations related to zoning, for home-based businesses and to facilitate telecommuting.
• Allow accessory dwelling units (ADUs).
• Reduce parking requirements.
• Provide for density bonuses for developments that provide specific numbers of affordable housing units at several market rates. Also award density bonuses for redevelopment of existing substandard housing.
• Reduce restrictions / limitations on where manufactured housing is allowed, including allowing it as a permitted in more zones.
• Allow for flexibility in house sizes.
• Zone more land to allow for manufactured housing.
• In some cases, there is too much land zoned for industrial purposes.

Land Development Review Process changes that may prove helpful:

• Reduce street width requirements so that service provision and maintenance costs are reduced.
• Where possible, shorten the review process / timeline.
• Calibrate zoning provisions and the development review process to make them consistent between neighboring municipalities.

Franklin County has a strong web of non-profit and county-based organizations and agencies to address homelessness.  These entities manage a number of programs and work with state and federal agencies.  Nevertheless, the efforts can continue across the following points as per the American Planning Association (2022).

• Adopt housing elements in comprehensive plans that speak to the need for emergency, transitional, and permanent housing.
• Continue to integrate “with the various plans and strategies that cities must develop in connection with federal housing and homeless funding, such as the Consolidated Housing & Community Development Plan, Continuum of Care for the Homeless, and Public Housing Agency Plan.”
• “Planning for both immediate homeless services and prevention of homelessness requires that communities take a comprehensive view of how the social safety net does and does not work for both transitionally and chronically homeless persons.” Ideally, communities address the root causes of homelessness.
• Provide community education to reduce “opposition to supportive housing in particular tends to be protracted, resulting in increased development costs for projects that already have extremely low margins of economic viability.”
• Reform zoning codes to allow more flexibility for the development of group homes.

There are several other identifiable populations that have distinctive issues related to housing, including the elderly, people with physical disabilities, those with mental health challenges, those with intellectual and developmental disabilities, and the formerly incarcerated. The distinctive issues they encounter are compounded by general challenges such as housing affordability and access to employment and services. Elderly and Aging:  The elderly population faces a number of challenges related to housing, as “incomes fall from preretirement levels, children leave home, health problems and activity limitations emerge, a spouse requires institutionalization or dies” (National Library of Medicine 2022).  Over 20% of Franklin County residents are aged 65 and above. These shares will continue to increase as the American population ages.

Physical Disabilities: 40,492 disabilities were reported by Franklin County residents via the American Community Survey.  Most people with disabilities are homeowners, as “63.6% of households headed by a person with a disability are owner occupied” (TRF, n.d.).  In terms of housing, some Americans with physical disabilities face “a frustrating array of barriers -- financial and bureaucratic ones as well as barriers of concrete, brick and wood.” (NPR 2022).

Mental Health:  Having mental health conditions may have an impact on housing. While most people with mental health issues live independently, others may need more affordable housing, temporary housing, or other types of permanent housing include licensed care homes, assisted living facilities, group homes, and other supportive housing options (MHA 2022).

People with Intellectual Disabilities: 8,133 individuals in Franklin have a cognitive disability. “People with intellectual and developmental disabilities, like all Americans, have a right to live in their own homes, in the community” (AAIDD 2022).  In the last half-century, there has been a movement to better speak to these rights. Mirroring that movement is a transition from larger scale institutional housing and care to “community residential options including group homes, single apartments with a roommate, or a family living setting,” with people being “provided supports in their family homes or their own home” (Dept. of Human Services 2022). 

 Formerly Incarcerated: This population encounters many challenges in reintegration into communities.  These challenges include housing, certainly, but also employment, behavioral and mental health, and sometimes substance abuse.  Oftentimes these issues are interrelated.

Want to read the full report?  Click here! 

Ackerman, Andrew and Nicole Friedman. (2022). “Biden Administration Targets Housing Supply Shortage with Affordable Housing Plan.” Wall Street Journal. May 16.  https://www.wsj.com/articles/biden-administration-targets-housing-supply-shortage-1165269160 

American Planning Association (APA) (2022). APA Policy Guide on Homelessness.  https://www.planning.org/policy/guides/adopted/homelessness.htm 

ApartmentList.com. (2022). Data and Rent Estimates.  Apartment List Blog - Data & Rent Estimates .

Bhattaira, Abha. Chris Alacantara, and Andrew Van Dam. (2022). “Rents are rising everywhere. See how much prices are up in your area.” Washington Post. April 21.  https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/interactive/2022/rising-rent-prices/ 

Bokat-Lindell, Spencer. (2021). “America’s Housing Crisis Is a Choice.” New York Times. Opinion. August 10.   https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/10/opinion/housing-crisis-eviction.html?searchResultPosition= 

Badger, Emily. (2019). “Many Renters Who Face Eviction Owe Less than $600.” New York Times.  The Upshot. December 12.   https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/12/upshot/eviction-prevention-solutions-government.html?searchResultPosition= 

Badger, Emily (2022). “Something Has to Give in the Housing Market. Or Does it?” New York Times.  The Upshot. January 20.  https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/12/upshot/eviction-prevention-solutions-government.html?searchResultPosition= 

Badger, Emily and Quoctrung Bui. (2018). “In 83 Million Eviction Records, A Sweeping and Intimate New Look at Housing in America.” New York Times.  The Upshot. April 7.   https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/04/07/upshot/millions-of-eviction-records-a-sweeping-new-look-at-housing-in-america.html?searchResultPosition= 

Badger, Emily and Quoctrung Bui. (2019). “Cities Start to Question an American Ideal: A House with a Yard on Every Lot.” New York Times.  The Upshot. June 18.  https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/06/18/upshot/cities-across-america-question-single-family-zoning.html?searchResultPosition=1 

Bright MLS. (2021). Market Statistics – Detailed Report: Franklin County, PA.  Data via Pen-Mar Association of Realtors.

Center for Workforce Information and Analysis. (2022). Industries of Interest. Penna. Department of Labor and Industries (DLI).  https://www.workstats.dli.pa.gov/Pages/default.aspx 

Cullingworth, Barry and Roger W. Caves. (2009). Planning in the USA. 4 ^th  edition. Routledge.

DCED (Dept. of Community and Economic Development, Penna.) (2021). “Home Investment Partnership Program Home”.   HOMEInvestment Partnership Program (HOME) - PA Department of Community &Economic Development 

DCED (Dept. of Community and Economic Development, Penna.) (2022b). “Homelessness in PA”.  Community Services.  Homelessnessin PA - PA Department of Community & Economic Development 

DHS (Pennsylvania Dept. of Human Services). (2022a). Emergency Rental Assistance Program.   Emergency Rental AssistanceProgram (ERAP) (pa.gov) 

DHS (Pennsylvania Dept. of Human Services). (2022b). Intellectual Disabilities Services.  https://www.dhs.pa.gov/Services/Disabilities-Aging/Pages/Intellectual-Disabilities-Services.aspx. 

Dougherty, Conor (2022). “Twilight of the NIMBY”  New York Times.  June 6.  https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/05/business/economy/california-housing-crisis-nimby.html 

Eviction Lab at Princeton University, The. (2021).  Maps and Data.  EvictionMap & Data | Eviction Lab  .

Franklin County, Penna. (2001). Ordinance 2001-01. An Ordnance Increasing the Recording Fee of Deeds and Mortgages to Support Affordable Housing Efforts in Franklin County.

Franklin County. (2022). Fair Housing.  https://franklincountypa.gov/index.php?section=human-services_housing#:~:text=Pennsylvania's%20Human%20Relations%20Commission%20has,with%20filing%20fair%20housing%20complaints.&text=Call%202%2D1%2D1%20to,specialist%20and%20get%20help%20today 

Franklin County Commissioners. (2016). “Franklin County Reentry Summit to be Held on May 16 ^th .”  Press release. May 2.

Franklin County Human Services and Referral. (2018). Where to Turn for Help Housing Services.”  https://franklincountypa.gov/ckeditorfiles/files/Info_referral/Where%20to%20Turn%20For%20Help%20-Housing%20Services%20-%20November%202018.pdf .

Franklin County Human Services. (2022). Projects for Assistance in Transition from Homelessness (PATH).   Franklin County, PA (franklincountypa.gov)  .

Franklin County Planning Department. (2021).  Subdivision Activity. Unpublished data.

Franklin County Planning Department. (2022). Notice of Franklin County FY 2022 Community Development Block Grant Application and First Public Hearing.   5_4_2022- FY 2022 NOTICE - CDBG APP AVAILABLE (2).pdf (franklincountypa.gov) .

Governor’s Center for Local Government Services. (2015). Reducing Land Use Barriers to Affordable Housing. 4 ^th  ed. Planning Series #10.  https://dced.pa.gov/download/planning-series-10-reducing-land-use-barriers-to-affordable-housing/?wpdmdl=56208&refresh=6298d9821749b165418432 

Habitat for Humanity. (2022). Website.  https://www.habitatfranklinpa.org/programs 

HUD (Housing and Urban Development, Dept. of). (2020).  Programs of HUD: Major Mortgage, Grant Assistance and Regulatory Programs, 2020.  https://www.hud.gov/sites/dfiles/Main/documents/HUDPrograms2020.pdf 

HUD (Housing and Urban Development, Dept. of). (2022a).  Community Development Block Grant Program.  https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/comm_planning/cdbg 

HUD (Housing and Urban Development, Dept. of). (2022b). The Home Program: Home Investment Partnerships.  https://www.hud.gov/hudprograms/home-program 

HUD (Housing and Urban Development, Dept. of). (2022c). Housing Choice Vouchers Fact Sheet. U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, Housing Choice Voucher Program.   HousingChoice Voucher Program Section 8 | HUD.gov / U.S. Department of Housing andUrban Development (HUD) .

HUD (Housing and Urban Development, Dept. of).  (2022d). Supportive HousingProgram, U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development.   https://www.hud.gov/hudprograms/supportive-housing 

HUDUser. (2022). Fair Market Rents. U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research.  Fair Market Rents (40thPERCENTILE RENTS) | HUD USER 

Joint Center for Housing Studies (JCHS), Harvard University. (2021). Many Households Burdened by Housing Costs.  Many HouseholdsBurdened by Housing Costs in 2019 | Joint Center for Housing Studies(harvard.edu )

Knapp, Gerrit. Stuart Meck, Terry Moore, and Robert Parker. (2007). Zoning As a Barrier to Multifamily Housing Development.  Planning Advisory Service Report No. 548.

Landis, John and Richard LeGates. (2000). “Housing Planning and Policy.” in Hoch, Charles, Linda C. Dalton, and Frank S. So. eds., The Practice of Local Government Planning. 3 ^rd  edition. International City Management Association.

Lewis, Mike. (2022). “Interest rate hikes, demand for housing send market into 'uncharted waters,' Realtor says.” The Herald Mail (Hagerstown). May 19.   https://www.publicopiniononline.com/story/news/2022/05/19/home-prices-still-rising-hagerstown-washington-county-maryland/9791612002/ 

Meck, Stuart. Rebecca Retzlaff, and James Schwab. (2003). Regional Approaches to Affordable Housing.  Planning Advisory Service Report No. 513/514.

MHA (Mental Health America). (2022). Housing. Mental Health America.  https://www.mhanational.org/housing 

MPC (Municipalities Planning Code). (2022). Municipalities Planning Code. Act 247 of 1968, as renacted and amended. 24 ^th  ed. Governor’s Center for Local Government Services, Penna. Dept. of Community and Economic Development.  https://dced.pa.gov/download/Pennsylvania%20Municipalities%20Planning%20Code/?wpdmdl=5620 

NAR. (2022). Housing Affordability Index.  https://www.nar.realtor/research-and-statistics/housing-statistics/housing-affordability-index 

NAR. (2021). National Association of Realtors Affordability Index of Existing Single-Family Homes for Metropolitan Areas.   https://cdn.nar.realtor/sites/default/files/documents/metro-affordability-2020-existing-single-family-2021-10-05.pdf 

National Library of Medicine. (2022). Current and Emerging Issues in Housing Environments for the Elderly. National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Institutes for Health (NIH).  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK219340/ 

NPR. (2022). “Home Prices Could Fall in Some U.S. Cities.  Here’s Where and Why.” May 12.   Homeprices could fall in some cities following sharp increases. : NPR  .

PAHAF (Penna. Homeowner Assistance Fund). (2022). Pennsylvania Homeowner Assistance Fund.  https://pahaf.org/  .

Parolek, Daniel. (2020). Missing Middle Housing: Thinking Big and Building Small to Respond to Today’s Housing Crisis. With Arthur C. Nelson. Island Press.

Pennsylvania Chapter, American Planning Association. (2022). Pennsylvania Chapter of APA Policy Statement on Affordable Housing/Housing Affordability.  https://planningpa.org/policy-statements/pennsylvania-chapter-of-apa-policy-statement-on-affordable-housinghousing-affordability/ 

Penna. Dept. of Education. (2022). American Rescue Plan (ARP) Homeless Children and Youth.  https://www.education.pa.gov/K-12/Homeless%20Education/ARP/Pages/default.aspx 

Pennsylvania Housing Finance Agency (PHFA). (2022). PA Housing Finance Agency.   https://www.phfa.org/ 

PASDC (Pennsylvania State Data Center). (2012). State and County Population Projections by Age and Gender: Pennsylvania 2010 to 2040.  Excel file.

Redfin. (2022). Franklin County Housing Market Trends.  https://www.redfin.com/county/2388/PA/Franklin-County/housing-market 

Reinvestment Fund & Real Estate Strategies, Inc. (2020). Pennsylvania’s Housing Trust Funds: Current Conditions and Opportunities for the Future. January.  https://www.phfa.org/forms/housing_study/reinvestmentfund-res-phfa-pa-housing-trust-funds.pdf 

SAMHSA. (2022).  Projects for Assistance in Transition from Homelessness (PATH). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).   Projects for Assistance in Transition from Homelessness (PATH) | SAMHSA 

Thompson, Derek. (2022). “The U.S. Housing Market Has Peaked.” The Atlantic. May 19.  https://www.theatlantic.com/newsletters/archive/2022/05/housing-market-slowing-down-recession/629901/ 

TRF (The Reinvestment Fund). (2022). Housing for Persons with Disabilities.  https://www.phfa.org/forms/housing_study/2007/hsg_persons_disabilities.pdf 

Urban Reform Institute.  (2022).     https://urbanreforminstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Demographia-United-States-Housing-Affordability-2021-Edition.pdf 

U.S. Census Bureau (2021). 2020 Decennial Census.

U.S. Census Bureau (2021). Selected housing characteristics, 2015-2019 American Community Survey 5-year estimates.

U.S. Census Bureau (2022a). Selected housing characteristics, 2016-2020 American Community Survey  5-year estimates.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2022b). Subject Definitions.  https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps/technical-documentation/subject-definitions.html#:~:text=A%20family%20group%20is%20any,one%2C%20or%20none%20at%20all .

U.S. GAO (Govt. Accounting Office). (2021). “The Challenges in Counting and Serving Homeless Populations.” GAO WatchBlog. Nov. 23.    https://www.gao.gov/blog/challenges-counting-and-serving-homeless-populations#:~:text=The%20Department%20of%20Housing%20and,a%20single%20night%20in%20January .

Weitz, Jerry and Leora Waldner. (2002). Smart Growth Audits. Planning Advisory Service Report No. 512.

Woock, Kati. (2022). “6 Practical Zoning Hacks for Missing Middle Housing.” Planning. March 21.  https://www.planning.org/planning/2022/winter/5-practical-zoning-hacks-for-missing-middle-housing/ 

Zillow. (2022). Zillow Home Value and Sales Forecast: May 2022. May 19.  https://www.zillow.com/research/home-value-sales-forecast-may-2022-3104 /