The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire

The Aztec civilisation controlled much of central America - or Mexico - at the time Cortes arrived at Veracruz. At the height of their power, the Aztec empire covered 200,000 square kilometres and extracted tribute (taxes) from 371 city-states.

As a result, news of the foreigners' arrival quickly travelled throughout the empire and soon reached the Aztec emperor, Montezuma II, in Tenochtitlan, the capital city.

The Spanish had already developed a reputation in the Americas, despite operating primarily in the Caribbean Islands. Their reputation was connected to reports of cruelty, subjugation and slavery.

Knowing this, Montezuma II sent envoys and gifts to Cortes in an attempt to appease him. However, Cortes' desire for glory and riches was only inflamed.

Reports of vast riches and gold lying further inland, in the heart of the Aztec empire, spurred him forward. He ordered the destruction of his 11 ships, an action that quashed any misgivings his crew may have had about disobeying Velazquez's orders and signalled that there was only one way to go: forward, into the heart of the Aztec Empire.

As you read through the timeline, click on each stage of the journey to follow along on the map.

One of Cortes' key abilities was his talent for identifying and manipulating local political rivalries. Although the Aztecs ruled over much of Mexico, many local villages and tribes wanted to be free of their subjugation to the Aztecs.

On their journey to Tenochtitlan, they first passed through Cempoala, where Cortes was able to gain the support of the Totanac people. They hoped to be free of their Aztec subjugation and saw the Spanish forces as a means to do so, despite the reputation the conquistadors were synonymous with.

Upon reaching the territory of Tlaxcaltec people, Cortes was forced to battle with them. However, after his victory he offered terms of peace and visions of a common goal of ending the Aztec Empire. As a result, the Tlaxcaltec people entered into an alliance with Cortes and added more warriors to his army.

Cortes clearly demonstrated a cunning ability to exploit existing political rivalries and extract support in the form of alliances and warriors, especially from groups who were unhappy with Aztec domination.

However, not all city-states were opposed to Aztec rule and instead aligned themselves with the Aztecs. Under circumstances where Cortes came across city-states loyal to the Aztecs, he often demonstrated overly hostile aggression towards them.

The holy city of Cholula had joined with the Aztecs and attempted to stall the Spaniards. In response, Cortes' forces commenced in battle and killed about 6,000 people. He then sacked the city for two days.

Cortes, and his conquistadors, seemed unstoppable.

• Lake Texcoco
• Islands
• Causeways
• Cortes' route
• Star: Tenochtitlan (Aztec capital)

In November 1519, Cortes and his forces - 500 soldiers and 1000 Tlaxcaltec allies - entered Tenochtitlan, after being welcomed and formally received by Emperor Montezuma II.

Historians have long held that Montezuma II invited Cortes into the city due to Aztec religious beliefs. According to these beliefs, the Aztecs expected an important god by the name of Quetzalcoatl - a white, bearded god - to return to rule over the empire. It just so happened that Cortes was white and bearded, fitting the general description.

This seemingly clouded Montezuma's judgment as Cortes had already clearly displayed what he was capable of.

View the source to the right to read an Aztec account of Cortes and Montezuma II meeting for the first time.

Once in the capital and accepted as guests, Cortes organised a surprise attack and seized the emperor as a captive. He had rightly observed that the emperor was the true leader of the city; Montezuma was king, military commander and was worshipped as a god by his people.

By capturing Montezuma II, Cortes guaranteed that his Aztec subjects were unable to retaliate out of fear of Cortes harming or killing their ruler. With Montezuma II as his hostage, it also gave Cortes control of Tenochtitlan.

Although Cortes had quickly gained control of the city, he was forced to abandon it early in 1520 to ward off a Spanish expedition that had been sent by Velazquez, who was attempting to bring him in for punishment.

Cortes left a small contingent of 80 Spaniards in Tenochtitlan to keep control of the city and departed to resolve the issue with the punitive party.

In his absence over several months, his small contingent lacked Cortes' skills at diplomacy and executed many key Aztec chiefs. As a result, Cortes returned on June 24 to find the city in open revolt. He attempted to use Montezuma II to restore the peace but the king had lost all authority over his people, who pelted him to death with stones.

View the source to the right to read an account of the Aztecs revolting against Spanish rule in the absence of Cortes, and how they reacted once Cortes had returned to Tenochtitlan.

On June 30, 1520, Cortes could no longer maintain control and the Spanish forces fled the city under cover of darkness. This didn't stop them from fleeing without notice; they were subject to combat, suffering hundreds of casualties on their escape from the city.

Many conquistadors drowned when attempting to flee, weighed down by the gold and treasures they attempted to carry with them.

Before the Aztec forces could finish off Cortes' fleeing army, a smallpox epidemic occurred. The outbreak significantly weakened the Aztecs, who had never been exposed to the European disease before. It crippled their forces and granted Cortes time to regroup.

Bernandino de Sahagun. (16th century). Aztecs affected by smallpox epidemic. Florentine Codex [Date accessed: 28/07/2020]. Available from:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg 

The image to the right depicts the smallpox epidemic. It is from the Florentine Codex, a 12-volume encyclopedic work that documented culture, religious practices, economics, natural history and the Spanish conquest. It was created in the 16th century by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagun and a group of Indigenous American students.

Over the course of a year, Cortes was able to gradually regain the upper hand, laying siege to Tenochtitlan. The siege was not effective at first as the Aztecs could bring resources in from causeways to the west and north. This meant that Cortes was first required to extend his control over the lake region.

The Spanish also had a superior military and weapons technology that included steel swords and armour, guns and gunpowder and cavalry. This was in stark advantage to the wooden clubs, spears and shields their enemies wielded.

Superior battle strategy and weapons allowed the Spaniards to rejoin their Tlaxcaltec allies, and other city-states that had sided with Spain. As their numbers grew, they launched attacks on settlements surrounding the Aztec capital, on the shores of Lake Texcoco. They took captives to use as servants, slaves and hostages.

By May 1521, the Spaniards had cut off the city's water supply and the surrounding causeways, isolating the city. It would only be a matter of time before thirst and hunger would force the issue.