Political Cartoons
and their Influence on Perception of the Civil Rights Movement.
Visual media, from political cartoons to animated movies and shows have often been used to spread a message or show a political opinion. There are many movies that hide serious political messages behind layers of colorful scenes, backdrops, and characters, and some of these messages are ignored because of the intended audience being children. Political cartoons reside between these two worlds. On the one hand, they are still drawings, no different than an animated movie, but they are also tools to express overt political opinions and messages. They are widely circulated and available and use few words to express strong opinions on political events. Political cartoons are not a new phenomenon, and their origins can be traced back to different periods of history to reflect an opinion of the time. In the civil rights era, political cartoons were not simply a tool of the white majority. They were used by many groups of spread messages, influence public opinion, or reinforce what was being felt by the people at the time. Examining history through the use of political cartoons allows for a different perspective on the common narrative, but an insightful view of these messages is not understood without having knowledge cartoons in animation, common themes in the art of the time, and how they interact with political cartoons and the messages they are trying to send. These concepts carry over when examining the civil rights movement, where political cartoons were also used as a tool to express opinion and shape beliefs of significant events.
Racism in Animation and Film: A Short History
Still from Scrub Me Mama with a Boogie Beat
To understand the impact of racism in cartoons, an analysis of racism in animation is imperative. Many of the stereotypes expressed in political cartoons share a great degree of overlap with various animated features, and these stereotypes were critical tools used in reinforcing public opinion about African American people. These racist depictions started as early as the silent era of film, though many animators were unaware of the message they were sending through their work (Cohen, 2004). Walter Lantz, for example, contended that many of his racist caricatures of African American people were not intended to be offensive. Lantz made the transition to animating animals and tried to maintain a wholesome image until 1948, when controversy surrounding the cartoon Scrub Me Mama with a Boogie Beat arose. The NAACP cited the film as negatively portraying African American people and indicating they were fundamentally lazy and only motivated by swing music (Cohen, 2004). Universal and Lantz did stop the production of the film, and even today, it is hard to get ahold of, but that does not diminish the harmful message that was being sent. The stereotype that depicts African American people as lazy is persistent and detrimental. Lantz was not the only animator to produce racist cartoons during this time, and other studios and production companies were rife with various caricatures of the African American community.
Paramount never ran an animation studio of its own, but it distributed animation produced by various people, including Dave Fleisher and George Pal (Cohen, 2004). Fleisher was known for having produced cartoons with racist images, and Pal was accused of perpetuating the spread of misinformation about the African American community. His character, Jasper, drew attention when Ebony magazine emphasized his negative characteristics and how detrimental they were for those concerned with lessening the myth of Uncle Tom (Cohen, 2004). At first glance, Jasper was a child who enjoys watermelon and was easily spooked by haunted houses, but these characteristics aid in a persisting idea that African American people are childish, enjoy molasses and watermelon, and that they are terrified of their own shadow (Cohen, 2004). Paramount and the other studios are not the only companies that has been accused of perpetuating and creating racist caricatures of African Americans, as this was a trend many studios are guilty of.
Disney too is guilty of perpetuating these negative and racist stereotypes through multiple films. Many films have become infamous for various reasons. Disney’s infamous film Song of the South has reached this status of infamy for its negative depiction of African American people. Though there were parts of the movie that were well received, the portrayal of a loving master-slave relationship was ultimately harmful and a distortion of the facts. Uncle Remus, the main character, was shown as a kind and caring figure towards the young Johnny as he takes him under his wing and tells him various folktales (Foster & Jackson, 1946). This depiction, however, is harmful, as it implies characters like Uncle Remus were humans only so long as they serve the needs of white characters (Tobias, 2019). The way these different studios and movies portray African Americans is extremely harmful, allowing for negative stereotypes to continue to persist with the public. For this reason, it is increasingly important to look at the share realm animation and political cartoons share. Both mediums allow for widespread public access and both are key elements in fostering public opinion and forming stereotypes and opinion. Since political cartoons are so closely tied to animation as a whole, it is crucial to examine them with a closer scope.
Is This Racist? Song of the South Clip
Brown v. Board: The Beginning of a Movement
Usually, a timeline of the civil rights movement will begin with the monumental case Brown v. Board of Education (Brown v. Board). After 60 years of segregation under the moniker of “separate but equal,” schools were to be desegregated (McNeese, 2008, p. 46). As revolutionary as this decision was, many schools were slow in implementing the changes that were called for by the verdict. Though the Supreme Court instigated Brown v. Board II in order to try and make schools desegregate faster, this was a process that did not happen quickly (McNeese, 2008, p. 47). There was backlash against the decision, particularly in the south. The Supreme Court’s ruling against school desegregation threatened white supremacy in the south, as one of the foundations of white supremacy rested on negative stereotypes about the intellectual capacities of African Americans (Ramsey, 2017). Parents in the south hurriedly pulled their children from public schools, and white mothers shouted angrily at Black children as they rode the bus to school (Ramsey, 2017). Despite the reactions from white families towards Brown v. Board, there were those who were pleased with the Supreme Court decision.
A political cartoon that was not outright negative called “Inch By Inch” by cartoonist Bill Mauldin is a more positive portrayal of school desegregation after Brown. Mauldin was a cartoonist who studied cartooning at the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts before enlisting in the army (“Bill Mauldin,” n.d.). He served in the for five years, where he drew cartoons that reflected his experiences in war. One of which earned him a Pulitzer Prize in 1945 (“Bill Mauldin,” n.d.). His cartoon “Inch By Inch” is a simple cartoon featuring a large door labeled “School Segregation.” At the bottom of the door are three small school children who are working together to open the door. In the cartoon, the door is opened a crack (Mauldin, 1960). The simplicity in Mauldin’s cartoon expresses a clear opinion about school segregation: that it is a heavy, intimidating force that was once squarely closed in the face of schoolchildren who were not able to open it themselves. Though the door is only opened a crack and has much more it needs to go through before it can be fully open, some progress is being made in the fight against school segregation. The cartoon is also Mauldin's way of criticizing the slow pace at which segregation is happening. Though it is open and being opened, he is saying it is not yet open enough.
Cartoonist Herb Block produced a few cartoons in response to Brown. An influential cartoonist, Block was known for cartoons depicting strong beliefs about civil liberties in a humorous way (Katz, n.d.). He is known for sticking to his beliefs, despite editors attempting to alter his work or make him change his opinion (Katz, n.d.). Block’s cartoon focuses on a white picketer holding a sign that desegregation is discriminatory towards white people while a father stands with his daughter looking at the man with confusion. The cartoon is ultimately commenting on the parents who pulled their children out of public school in wake of Brown. Block himself commented on the cartoon, saying that it is ironic how some people felt discriminated against when the Supreme Court recognized that separate but equal was not really equal at all (Block, 1963). This cartoon is effective in acknowledging the hypocrisy of white southerners and their response to Brown. Both cartoons provide a more positive depiction of Brown despite the fact that there was so much anger towards the ruling. Though these cartoons do have a positive outlook towards them, that is not always the case.
The Influence of Sit-Ins
Another important tactic used by African American college students were sit-ins. In 1960 Ezell Blair Jr., Joseph McNeil, Franklin McCain, and David Richmond, four college students, defied the social norms at the time and sat at the lunch counter of a local store. The store allowed for Black residents to purchase merchandise, but they were not allowed to sit at the lunch counter (McNeese, 2008, p. 85). This simple act was revolutionary, as it shattered the norms of the time. Word of the sit-in spread quickly, and within a day four protestors grew to twenty (McNeese, 2008, p. 86). Eventually, the sit-ins spread from North Carolina to Tennessee, Georgia, and other southern states (McNeese, 2008, p. 87). Restaurants and segregated businesses across the south were the targets of this new protest. In September 1961, Atlanta’s shops and businesses agreed to start offering equal service for African Americans (McNeese, 2008, pg. 89). This is a condensed version of what happened, but the impact of sit-ins cannot be denied. The way they spread throughout the south in such a short period of time is impressive, and the magnitude of people who participated in these protests offers insight as to why this movement was successful.
Political cartoons that focus on sit-ins with accurate dates are hard to find, but one cartoon was able to be accessed. In this cartoon, a man confronts a stranger that has been following him. The stranger mentions that he is the man’s “sit in” – a comment that the man disregards flippantly, stating that he is not a lunch counter. The stranger asks the man if he has ever taken a colored person to work with him and the man explains he would if he could find someone qualified enough, but he still reinforces the fact that he supports the man who has been following him. The cartoon ends with the man curled on his side, looking away from the stranger, and lamenting that civil rights used to be more tolerable until African Americans “got into it” (Williams, 2002, p. 36). The cartoon, drawn by Jules Feiffer, an accomplished artist who has won a Pulitzer prize and an Academy Award, is calling attention to the hypocrisy of liberal whites. The cartoon is criticizing how liberal whites claim to be supporters of civil rights and integration but are still racist and racially biased in their private lives (Williams, 2002, p. 37). This is not the first time a cartoon has brought attention to those who do not support civil rights or desegregation, but this is the first cartoon observed that calls attention to the hypocrisy of white liberals. This is also the first cartoon examined that indicates displeasure with the civil rights movement, a trend that becomes more apparent as the movement progressed.
Jeffries, 1963
Black Power: A Shift in Reception
Towards the end of the traditional narrative of the civil rights movement, Black Power emerged. The term was used by Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee chairman Stokely Carmichael in 1966, where he used the term while rallying marchers in Mississippi (“Black Power,” 2018). As a movement, Black Power emphasized racial pride, economic empowerment, and the creation of political and economic institutions, as well as calling for black history classes, as well as more of an embrace of African culture (“Black Power,” 2018). Despite the emphasis on embracing African American culture and a focus on education geared towards African American history (to name just a few), Black Power has a muddled history that not everyone agreed with at the time or since. Some view the Black Panther Party, a political party that rallied around Black Power, as nothing more than a terrorist group and minimizing the good that came from the Black Panther Party.
One political cartoon, published by the Black Panther Party, shows a couple protesting. The couple protesting in 1965 are saying “we shall overcome” while the man in the background solemnly agrees. When the couple is protesting in 1969, however, the reaction is vastly different. Now, the couple is saying they will “overthrow” while the man in the background looks on with a scared expression and calls it “anarchy!” (The Black Panther Party, 1969). The cartoon represents the fundamental differences in how Black Power was received. When the civil rights movement was framed as overcoming obstacles, people were not afraid of it. This is not meant to minimize the struggle at all, but when the couple is portrayed as demure and trying simply to overcome, the public reaction is milder - more accepting. When the framing is shifted, then, to one of overthrowing and making radical changes, the reception changes completely. Suddenly, people are less receptive to efforts to change and protestors are seen as violent or dangerous. The main message of this cartoon is that people are more receptive to the movement only when they feel there is not a threat posed to them. If the protesters get angry, or change their verbiage, then suddenly they are “anarchists” or “too demanding.” This sentiment was further expressed in Bill Crawford’s cartoon “Marching Together.”
When compared to the Black Panther’s cartoon, Crawford’s is simpler and represents more of a straightforward message. Crawford, born in Indiana, was an award winning cartoonist who had cartoons featured in the Washington Post and the Washington Daily News. His cartoons had been distributed in more than 700 newspapers and he also served as president of the National Cartoonists Society (“Bill Crawford Papers,” n.d.). In his cartoon, two figures are walking side by side, both with clubs in their hand, and both dressed in traditional Ku Klux Klan robes. The figure in the white robes is labeled “white supremacy” and the figure in black is labeled “Black Power” (Crawford, n.d.). This message is simple: that Black Power is no different from the KKK in terms of violence and their actions. The Black Panther cartoon portrayed a negative reaction to Black Power, and this cartoon emphasizes that negative outlook people had. By portraying Black Power as an African American version of white supremacy, Crawford is saying that the two are on equal ground in terms of apparent violence. Readers who would see this political cartoon would then gain the impression that Black Power is a hateful, violent group, that does nothing more than attack people and seek violence as the only means to an end. This was the predominant view of Black Power and oftentimes is what gets portrayed, if Black Power is mentioned in school curriculums at all. Where the Black Panther cartoon suggests that protesting in 1969 is more radical and more forthright in their demands, both cartoons acknowledge the negative perception the public had of Black Power.
Why is this Important?
The political cartoons used as examples above all allow for an understanding of the opinions during the time and give way for a more nuanced understanding of people’s reactions to major events. Schoolchildren are taught about southern rage to Brown v. Board, but rage was not the only emotion people were feeling. The cartoonists used as examples above viewed desegregation as a step in the right direction – a sliver of door opening. Their opinions may not have been the majority’s opinion, and they may have been more nuanced than what was drawn, but the work of the cartoonists offers a different perspective of the movement, especially in a time where cartoons were rife with racist caricatures and stereotypes abounded in art. This is not to imply the racism of animation stayed in animation studios, but the degree of difference between cartoons like Scrub Me Mama with a Boogie Beat and the cartoons examined is stark. Political cartoons are not just a tool to compare to animation, but they are also reflections of a shift in public opinion.
As mentioned, the cartoons for Brown were mostly positive, and the cartoon drawn in response to sit-ins may not have offered commentary on sit-ins themselves but used the practice as a way to criticize negativity and hypocrisy from white liberals. The lack of available cartoons about sit-ins is interesting as well, especially since sit-ins are usually heralded as a significant part of the civil rights movement and something that is taught in schools. The cartoon, however, does offer an interesting insight: the shift in public perception towards the civil rights movement. Though some people may have been outward supporters, there were those who still harbored internalized racism. By the time Black Power was a more prominent force, the cartoons drawn in response to it were no longer being shown in a supportive manner. A majority of these cartoons were negative, supporting the idea of a violent Black Power movement as opposed to a movement that sought change through nonviolent means. As the Black Panther cartoon commented, people were only supportive of civil rights when they were “overcoming.” When the narrative shifted to become more radical, to “overthrow,” people were alarmed. Black Power was viewed as a group of domestic terrorists, and that is the story that is usually presented if Black Power is ever mentioned. This is a notable change in opinion, but it reflects the shift in perception as Black Power rose.
While this is a limited view of political cartoons, it reframes the civil rights movement to focus on more than what is oftentimes presented in the common narrative. Political cartoons also separate themselves as a completely different entity than animation. Though the two are closely tied, as some political cartoon artists are also animators, the racism present in animated movies and shows is not as pronounced in political cartoons. Though there will always be examples that fall back on racism and caricatures, political cartoons are their own category of cartoon, and they serve as indicators of public perception and how that may shift over time. It is true they may reflect these narratives, but they also provide their own voices and their own accounts of what was happening at a time, and that is why examining political cartoons is so important.
