Environmental Impacts of Land Reclamation in Singapore
Singapore's $100 billion project to create new land for its citizens carries considerable environmental consequences.
64 islands. 700 square kilometers. Almost 6 million people.
Figure 1: Reclamation in Eastern Singapore (Image by Google Earth)
At the surface, the southeast Asian country of Singapore represents an affluent site of modernity with widespread urbanization, centers for commerce, and nearly $1 trillion in sovereign wealth. In reality, Singapore is in a perpetual state of crisis; as increased rainfall from global warming continues to raise the sea level each year, the small country comprised of numerous shrinking islands often lacks sufficient land to support its growing population and economy. While some engineers proposed constructing infrastructure in the sky and on floating platforms in the Indian Ocean, Singapore's government instead employs another capital-intensive land formation strategy: land reclamation. While this method offers Singapore increased physical space to improve the sustainability of its urban landscapes, land reclamation nevertheless disrupts and displaces the native fauna and flora of its diverse coastal ecosystems.
"We've always been acutely aware of our small size." - Assistant chief executive of government agency in Singapore
What is Land Reclamation?
The process of land reclamation refers to any practice that allows an entity to gain land areas for a specific use. The first step in reclaiming land involves the use of delimiting dykes, or barriers used to hold back water from a larger lake or ocean. Engineers position the dykes a few hundred feet from shore, install them deep into the ocean seabed, and drain the water behind the wall (Figure 2). As Singapore has maintained its appetite for land for decades, engineers now struggle with building dykes in water as deep as 20 meters. (Image by K. R. Olson, Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, Source Link )
The next step of land reclamation involves packing the empty hole with infill. While reclamation engineers often utilize concrete and silt to stabilize the foundation, Singapore instead relies on the pouring of sand onto the sea bottom and the infrequent placing of drains for pumping out surplus water (Figure 3). Singapore's perpetual need for sand prompted Indonesia, Malaysia, and Cambodia to halt the exportation of sand to the small country after the late 2000's; as a result, Singapore decreased its reliance on sand for land building by instead employing rock and soil debris from construction projects for infill. (Image by Jonathan Drake, Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, Source Link )
After the drained area is filled, governments repurpose the reclaimed land for port expansion, industrial and residential areas, airport runways, and agricultural zones. With regard to Singapore, villages utilized land reclamation during the mid-nineteenth century to strengthen coastlines and ultimately protect fishing communities from flooding; however, Singapore's government has prioritized the use of land reclamation for infrastructure projects, industry, public utilities like transport links, and military purposes since the nation's sudden industrialization following World War II such as the oil factories on Jurong Island (Figure 4). (Image by Shell, Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, Source Link )
As a result of its endless land reclamation, Singapore's size has grown by 25% in half of a century from 224 to 277 square miles. A significant portion of Singapore's infrastructure also stands on reclaimed land; from Changi Airport to the Marina Bay Sands resort, some of the country's most iconic landmarks owe their existence to the additional space provided by these infills of sand, soil, and rock (Figure 5). And its government only seeks to expand these reclamation projects through the next decade; by 2030, government officials project Singapore's size to increase by 100 square kilometers. (Image by Shutterstock)
"Once I began looking for reclaimed land, I found it everywhere." - Samanth Subramanian, 2017
Benefits of Land Reclamation
Figure 6: Plaza of Supertrees (Image by CPG)
One of the most prominent positive impacts of Singapore's land reclamation is the improved sustainability of the country's urban spaces. According to Gardner (2016), sustainable cities need to work "in harmony" with nature by establishing "green spaces" and "green infrastructure" that purify the air, reduce artificial warming from buildings, and improve the health of their inhabitants (pp. 49-50). The additional land afforded to Singapore's cities from its reclamation projects encourages the development of these green spaces; since the initial expansion of the country, Singapore has maintained 0.8 hectares of park space per 1,000 civilians in its cities and completed construction on a network of 300 kilometers of green corridors around the main island that connect parks and nature areas like the plaza of "supertrees" to population centers (Figure 6). Coupled with the nearly 1.3 million trees and shrubs that are planted within its cities, this emphasis on establishing spaces for nature within Singapore's urban environments demonstrates how land reclamation has not only increased their biological diversity but ultimately created more livable cities.
"Today, Singapore is a ecomodernist paradise: a dense metropolis with manufactured green trim." - Matthew Schneider-Mayerson, 2017
Consequences of Land Reclamation
A common concern associated with land reclamation is the longevity of soil and sand as infill materials. For instance, these materials often complicate land consolidation; as soil and sand struggle with compaction, Singapore reserves most infill materials for urban environments in need of deep foundations and thus threatens port yards and storage areas that require less infill with potential collapse. Soil liquefaction similarly illustrates the instability of reclaimed land; in response to sudden changes in pressure, sand can temporarily behave like a liquid and lose its ability to support larger structures (Figure 7). As a result, key pieces of Singapore's infrastructure like its roads, bridges, and airports are prone to collapsing. (Source: Civil Engineering RWTH Aachen University. (2016, December 14). Soil Liquefaction. [Video]. YouTube. Source Link )
However, the most substantial consequence of land reclamation is the degradation and elimination of Singapore's coastal ecosystems. Through Singapore's pursuit of increased land for infrastructure projects, the country's coastal forests and mangrove swamps have entirely vanished with only some of their flora surviving on coastal cliffs and offshore islands. Furthermore, land reclamation disrupts the natural processes of most remaining ecosystems; as a result of the changing shape of the terrain itself, reclamation introduces new hills, reservoirs, lakes, and drainage patterns that alter the chemical and energy cycles present in most of Singapore's natural spaces. Along with the destruction of the country's coral reefs (Figure 8), this destruction of its coastal ecosystems undermines the sustainability of these areas for domestic flora and fauna. (Image by Getty)
Likewise, the toxic chemicals present in most infill substances have also polluted most of Singapore's marine ecosystems. For instance, clay sediment used in infill in reclamation projects on the coast of Pulau Semakau continues to seep into surrounding waters and contaminate the water for its various marine organisms (Figure 9). In addition, Singapore's government lacks extensive sewerage and water treatment systems for minimizing the spread of toxic substances from soil infill into the main island's rivers and ultimately the sudden change in the ecology of its river ecosystems. And although the government faces significant opposition from the public for this ongoing pollution, the government still continues its reclamation projects because it holds what Mitchell (2005) refers to as the "power to define" (p. 53); as Singapore's government holds the authority to define the country's landscape is and what belongs in it, it can further pollute and contaminate these natural ecosystems as well as citizens' main sources of drinking water while maintaining a false image as a clean and green nation state. (Image by Kelvin Yong, Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, Source Link )
"Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are carried out when, and if the Government deems them appropriate, and then usually in confidence." - Patrick A. Hesp, 1995
The Global Perspective
Singapore does not represent the only nation utilizing land reclamation to combat climate change; as scientists predict that global sea levels will likely rise by as much as 6 feet by 2100, coastal cities around the planet like New York, Miami, Rio de Janeiro, and Mumbai have all considered reclaiming land to protect themselves against rising tides and prevent themselves from vanishing altogether. Furthermore, numerous countries have also adopted land reclamation for infrastructure development; projects like the Eko Atlantic City in Lagos, Nigeria that builds offices and flats, Saemangeum Seawall in Korea that builds more farmland, and the Giuzhou sea project in Hong Kong, China that builds new residential and industrial spaces all depend on different methods of land reclamation to access new land for development (Map 1). Therefore, refining Singapore's land reclamation efforts would similarly improve the reclamation standards used by other countries; according to Mountz (2009), the "flows" across boundaries associated with globalization are not exclusive for people, goods, and services but also includes the spread of ideas and practices (p. 164). As land reclamation grows as a globalized process, finding solutions for its negative environmental impacts while maintaining its efficacy as defense against climate change will not only make Singapore's reclamation projects more sustainable for all of its domestic organisms but will similarly improve the conservation practices of other nations through these global flows.
Check out the map below to learn more about land reclamation projects around the globe:
Map 1: Prominent Land Reclamation Projects Throughout History
References:
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