Gandharan Art
Syncretism and Sculpture in the ancient region of Gandhara
Introduction
The ancient region of Gandhara may not be well-known, but is a site of great historical diversity. From conquerors to missionaries to traders, numerous forces have influenced the region, leading to a complex blend of cultural backgrounds. Between 100 BCE and 700 CE, Gandhara gave rise to a new artistic tradition, today known as Gandharan art. A unique amalgamation of Greco-Roman and Indian aesthetics coupled with Buddhist iconography, Gandharan art stands as an excellent example of cultural syncretism that showcases the intricate histories of the region and highlights the interconnectivity of the ancient world. Gandharan art is in itself a convergence between a variety of different cultures, both Eastern and Western, highlighting the beauty of cultural exchange, particularly in the ancient world.
Gandharan art finds its roots in both the Silk Road – an ancient series of trade routes which connected Asia to the Mediterranean and beyond – and a series of imperial conquests which introduced unique aesthetic sensibilities to the region. Today, Gandharan art is renowned for its unique fusion of a multitude of different cultural aesthetics and as a symbol of ancient internationalism and tolerance – a trait which has made Gandharan art the victim of international smuggling rings, forgeries, and cultural destruction.
Geography
Gandhara is an ancient region now located in Northern Pakistan and Eastern Afghanistan – though that definition has a few flaws. In fact, the geographical region of Gandhara is a matter of some debate, with the most conservative definitions of its extent confining it to the Peshawar Valley in Northern Pakistan, and the most liberal extending the region out into Eastern Afghanistan. Conservative estimates of the region limit the area to only 125 kilometers at its widest point, encompassing the area of Northern Pakistan east of the Hindu Kush mountain range and west of Islamabad, the current capital of Pakistan.
When discussing the Gandharan school of art, however, the region is often described as much larger, encompassing the Peshawar, Taxila, and Swat Valleys of Northern Pakistan, Eastern Afghanistan up to Kapisa and Bamiyan, and as far as the Jhelum River in Eastern Pakistan (debatably). ‘Greater Gandhara’ is described as being larger due to “a shared political and cultural history resulting from being incorporated into ‘the several Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian, and Kuṣāṇa empires’ and from ‘their adoption of the distinctive eclectic styles of Gandhāran art as well as by their use of the Gāndhārī language.” Greater Gandhara is therefore moreso a cultural and “linguistic [term] rather than a political term,” (Saloman qtd. in Rienjang and Stewart, "The Geography of Gandharan Art", 2019, 6-8).
Rough map of 'Greater Gandhara', including Bamiyan in the far West and Taxila/Islamabad to the East.
History of Gandhara
Early History, Achaemenid Empire, Early Buddhism
Pre-6th Century BCE
Gandhara serves as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (kingdoms) of Northern India.
6th Century BCE
The Achaemenid/Persian king Cyrus expands his empire into Northern India, destroying the city of Kapisa, located in Greater Gandhara.
563 - 483 BCE
Life of Siddhartha Gautama, or the Buddha Shakyamuni - the founder of Buddhism. The Buddha is said to have received enlightenment as a man and spent 45 years teaching the tenets of Buddhism, including the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, to his followers.
5th Century BCE
The Behistun Inscription, an Achaemenid royal inscription created under the rule of Darius I, lists Gandhara as part of the Achaemenid empire. Buddhist missionaries may have begun settling in Gandhara as early as this due to Achaemenid religious tolerance.
465 BCE
Death of Darius I's son, Xerxes, and the beginning of the decline of the Achaemenid Empire. By the 4th century BCE, it is likely the Achaemenids had minimal to no control over the region of Gandhara.
Macedonian Conquest
327/326 BCE
Macedonian conquest of Gandhara led by Alexander the Great. Several Greek colonies were established West of Gandhara, particularly in modern-day Afghanistan.
323 BCE
Death of Alexander the Great and the decline of Macedonian rulership in Gandhara. Though Macedonian rulership in Gandhara was brief, newly-created avenues of interaction between Gandharans and Macedonian-Greeks, particularly in Bactria (modern day Iran) and Afghanistan had far-reaching implications for cultural exchange.
Mauryan Empire
321 BCE
Chandragupta Maurya establishes the Mauryan Empire and begins to expand (perhaps taking inspiration from Alexander the Great, who he may have met several years prior).
317 BCE
Chandragupta Maurya launches an attack on Taxila in Gandhara, effectively taking over the region. Later, he placed his son, Bindusara, in control of Gandhara, who in turn placed his son, Ashoka Maurya, in control of the region after he ascended to the throne.
270 BCE
Ashoka Maurya ascends to the throne as emperor of the Mauryan Empire.
261 BCE
Ashoka converts to Buddhism and begins a campaign of religious mission work to spread the word of Buddhism throughout his empire and beyond. While Buddhism had already begun to spread towards Gandhara in earlier years, the reign of Ashoka is credited as being key to the spread of Buddhism in Central Asia and Gandhara – notably due to his building of stupas (monuments intended to inter the ashes of the Buddha Shakyamuni and serve as devotional sites), as well as his policy of diplomatic relations and trade for the purpose of spreading Buddhism. Furthermore, Ashoka’s diplomatic relations with the Seleucids, Bactrians, Romans, and Egyptians further established cultural contact between Gandhara and the international world.
232 BCE
Death of Ashoka Maurya. After Ashoka's death, Mauryan control over Gandhara began to fade.
Bactrian/Indus Greek, Indo-Parthian, and Indo-Scythian Rule
195 BCE
Rulership fell to the Bactrian/Indus Greeks after an effective invasion of Kabul Valley and Gandhara. At this point, there had been a Buddhist establishment in the region for several decades at the very least, and the Bactrian/Indus Greeks, as well as succeeding invading forces, generally lived peacefully amongst that establishment, allowing it to flourish. The Bactrian/Indus Greeks in the region continued to spread both Hellenistic culture and Buddhism throughout Gandhara.
60 BCE - 60 CE
After 60 BCE, several forces ruled over Gandhara, including the Indo-Scythians and Indo-Parthians, both of whom also continued sponsorship of Buddhism in the region, including the building of new stupas and the continued work of missionaries on the Silk Road, a series of trade routes reaching from China to Europe. These regimes contributed not only to the advancement of Buddhism in the region, but also the cultural makeup of the region itself.
Kushan Empire
60 CE
Gandhara falls to the Kushan Empire, led by Kujula Kadphises. The Kushans were a group of Indo-Europeans who previously resided in northwestern China before migrating into Central Asia and eventually, Gandhara.
128-150 CE
Rule of Kushan Emperor Kanishka. At the time of Kanishka's rule, the Kushan Empire held capitols in both Mathura (in Northern India) and Peshawar (in Gandhara). During Kanishka’s rule, the Kushans not only controlled vast areas of modern day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Northern India, but also gathered a great amount of wealth due to mercantile operations aided by the Silk Road. Buddhism was patronized by imperial forces throughout the Kushan Empire's rulership over the region, and Emperor Kanishka is even said to have sponsored the Fourth Buddhist Council which established Mahayana Buddhism as a sect.
3rd Century CE
Fall of the Kushan Empire and beginning of decline of Buddhist institutions in Gandhara. Buddhist sculptural arts remained relevant in Gandhara up through the 7th century CE, but it was under the Kushan Empire that Gandharan art truly flourished, partially due to the empire’s fostering of sculptural arts in the construction of sangharamas, or temples, and stupas.
Successor States
Post 3rd Century CE
After the fall of the Kushan Empire, several forces invaded and established rulership of Gandhara, including the Sassanians, the Kidara Kushans, the Ephthalites, the Turk Shahis, and Hindu Shahis. Buddhism in the region was not patronized to nearly the same degree as it was under previous rulership, and began a steady decline characterized by fluctuations in support.
A coin depicting the Kushan Emperor Kanishka I, with the inverse side depicting the Buddha Shakyamuni, labelled with the Greek letters ΒΟΔΔΟ.
Gandharan Art
The Gandharan school of art traces its origins to the 1st century BCE, when early sculptors began to craft iconic relief sculptures of Bodhisattvas and other figures for use in stupas and monasteries throughout the region. Gandharan sculptural art is intrinsically tied to architecture, as a majority of still-extant Gandharan sculpture was made either to adorn stupas, sangharamas, and monasteries or to stand alone in the niches of said monuments. The reason for this is twofold: firstly, large Buddhist monumental architecture and sculptural decoration was funded by wealthy patrons, and therefore was created in greater numbers than other forms of sculpture. Secondly, this large monumental architecture was durable, and therefore Buddhist sculpture survived in greater numbers over other forms of visual arts from the region.
Ruins of Buddhist Monastery Takht-i-Bahi, constructed by the Indo-Parthians.
Early Depictions of the Buddha
Initially, Buddhist art in the Gandhara region was confined solely to Bodhisattvas and other figures, rather than the Buddha Shakyamuni himself. The first example of an iconic image of the Buddha from the region is found in relief on the Bimaran reliquary, a first century CE golden reliquary inlaid with garnets and carved in high relief, depicting the Buddha and Hindu deities Indra and Brahma. Under patronage from the Kushan empire, artists in Gandhara continued to develop the Gandharan art style, characterized by Greco-Roman and other cultural influences, to create free-standing sculptures of the Buddha sculpted from schist (a type of rock local to the Swat valley), as well as reliefs showcasing the life of the Buddha. After the second century CE, icons of the Buddha shifted from narrative reliefs to more devotional-style portraiture.
The Bimaran Reliquary, the first known depiction of the Buddha Shakyamuni in Gandharan art. Note the Hindu deities Indra and Brahma flanking the Buddha.
Hellenistic Influence
Early sculptures found adorning Buddhist architecture were rigid but distinctly Greco-Roman in inspiration, given their anatomy and particularly the folds of their clothing. Later, in the first century CE and on, figures became more naturalistic and continued to be portrayed in Greco-Roman style dress: heavy robes with intricately modeled folds. In these early portrayals, a strong Hellenistic influence is apparent. One example of this is found in a 1st century CE set of relief sculptures, likely taken from the lower portion of a stupa or other monument, in which non-Buddhists are dancing and celebrating.
A set of three reliefs depicting over a dozen individuals celebrating. Note the Corinthian columns and Greco-Roman and Phrygian styles of clothing.
In these reliefs, several figures are clad in heavy, Greek-style robes and depicted in contrapposto, a pose utilized in Greco-Roman art. Flanking these revelers are Corinthian-style columns – another uniquely Hellenistic symbol. The scene itself may be likened to similar Hellenistic scenes related to the Greek god Dionysus. Though Gandharan art is often considered as being inherently Buddhist, some Gandharan art of non-Buddhist subjects, particularly Hellenistic subjects, survives. These often take the form of reliefs, stair-risers, or small personal items, such as palettes for mixing pigments, depicting Greek myths or figures such as Hercules or Apollo and Daphne.
A small palette, used for mixing pigments, depicting the Greek mythological figures Apollo and Daphne.
In icons of the Buddha and his Bodhisattvas, Hellenistic influences are readily visible. They continued to be modelled in heavy robes and in slight contrapposto. Furthermore, images of the Buddha often had a nimbus, or halo, placed behind his head, “a motif which may have its origins in Graeco-Roman depictions of luminous divinities,” (Stewart, "Gandharan Art and the Classical World", 2023, 13).
- A sculpture of the Buddha. One hand is raised in a mudra, and one lies at his side. He is flanked by a broken halo and clothed in heavy robes.
- A free-standing sculpture of the Bodhisattva Maitreya. He wears loose robes that show an exposed chest and jewelry. His plinth depicts lotus flowers.
- A sculpture of the Buddha Shakyamuni. One missing hand is raised, and his head is flanked by a halo. He wears heavy robes and sits atop a plinth carved with lotus flowers.
- A sculpture of the Bodhisattva Maitreya. He wears loose robes exposing a bare chest and jewelry. His plinth depicts sitting ascetics.
- A sculpture of the Buddha Shakyamuni depicted with a halo and heavy robes. Both hands are missing.
Several free-standing sculptures of the Buddha Shakyamuni and the Bodhisattva Maitreya, showcasing the Hellenistic influence over Buddhist sculpture in the region.
Even the manner in which heads were carved has distinct ties to Hellenistic art, with the inclusion of wavy strands of hair and defined eyebrows and mouths that showcase little emotion, albeit with softer and more rounded face silhouettes.
A side-by-side view of a 5th century CE Gandharan bust of a Bodhisattva and a 5th century BCE Greek bust of a woman.
Non-Hellenistic Influences
Narrative reliefs, such as those depicting the life of the Buddha which often lined stupas in the region, often depict the Buddha in the same Greco-Roman manner, with heavy robes and a halo. Women in particular in these reliefs were often depicted as a fusion of multiple different cultures, wearing wreaths and robes and carrying cornucopias, as in Greco-Roman art, but modelled after yakshis, or sculptures of female spirits in Indian art.
A 2nd century CE narrative relief of the Buddha Shakyamuni at the Bodhi Tree and the Didarganj Yakshi, a sculpture of a Yakshi from the 3rd century BCE. Note the similarities between the rightmost figure in the relief and the yakshi pictured right.
Other influences are also apparent in Gandharan art. Depictions of the Buddha often have several lakshanas (marks which distinguish the Buddha), including an unishna (or topknot in the hair) and urna (dot on the forehead). Bodhisattvas in Gandharan art were distinguished similarly, with intricately carved unishnas and moustaches, as well as other distinguishing traits. Bodhisattva Maitreya (showcased in the gallery above alongside the Buddha Shakyamuni), a commonly depicted Bodhisattva in Gandharan art, is often seen with a looped topknot, water flask, and jewelry. These elements all provide a distinctly Indian aesthetic flair, similar to the figures modelled after yakshis in narrative reliefs.
Though images of the Buddha and his Bodhisattvas are usually depicted in Greco-Roman style garb with Indian elements, supporting figures in Gandharan Buddhist monumental sculpture were depicted in varying ways, sometimes shown in “contemporary, Iranian-style tunics characteristic of the Kushans,” or in “tunics and mantles more reminiscent of the Mediterranean,” (Stewart, "Gandharan Art and the Classical World", 2023, 20). This showcases an interesting facet of Gandharan art – contemporary Kushans included their own cultural aesthetic language amongst Buddhist monumental art of the region (alongside other cultural aesthetics), but continued to depict devotional figures like the Buddha in an Indian/Hellenistic aesthetic synthesis. This establishes devotional portraiture as “other” and existing as part of a legacy of strong cultures, both Indian and Hellenistic, which had immense influence on the region.
Threats to Gandharan Art
Smuggling and Forgeries
Today, Gandharan art is recognized as a prevailing example of the surprisingly cosmopolitan nature of the ancient world – a trait that has made it a target of both illegal trade and the destruction of cultural sites and artworks. In the 19th century, a Eurocentric view of art that connected Gandhara to “European” art styles made Gandharan art of particular interest to collectors. This interest in Gandharan art continues into today, and has fueled a practice of illegal trade out of Pakistan, which modern legislation has thus far failed to entirely prevent. Most Gandharan sculptural art resides in the hands of private collectors, particularly in Europe, America, and Japan or on the international antiquities market.
In 2022, 192 stolen antiquities were returned to Pakistan from the US Department of Homeland Security and Manhattan District Attorney’s office following an investigation into art smuggler Subhash Kapoor. Over 3.4 million US dollars worth of Gandharan artifacts were hidden in a storage facility owned by Kapoor. Two years prior, 45 objects were returned to Pakistan from the US. These 200+ artifacts were stolen from Pakistan and smuggled into New York in the 1990s, after which Kapoor’s fellow art traffickers Zahid Parvez and Zeeshan Butt supplied the international art market with artifacts through businesses in Islamabad, Bangkok, Hong Kong, and Dubai.
A 2012 photo showcasing fake replicas of Gandharan art in Taxila, sold to tourists and collectors and sometimes passed off as authentic.
Demand from collectors and the antiquities market has not only fostered illicit trade and smuggling, but also the creation of forgeries. While there is little academic discussion surrounding forgeries of Gandharan art, there is a pattern of fakes circulating around international trade circles. Some of these fakes are fairly obvious, utilizing modern materials or materials unavailable in the Gandhara region, while others are simply copies of pre-existing works or are “too good to be true,” depicting scenes of particular interest to collectors. Oftentimes, however, professionals are reluctant to assert a particular piece is a forgery, given the legal and financial implications, and some forgeries have been said to have made it into official museum collections, sometimes repatriated back to Pakistan alongside genuine articles.
Cultural Destruction
Perhaps one of the most important threats to Gandharan art, however, is physical destruction. In the 2000s, several high-value examples of Gandharan art in both Pakistan and Afghanistan (the ancient region of Gandhara) were destroyed by sects of the Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist terrorist organization. In 2001, over 2,750 objects in the National Museum in Kabul, Afghanistan were destroyed, likely alongside many others throughout the country after an edict declaring that all “idols”, or statues that depict people or animals, be destroyed. The very same edict incited perhaps one of the most notable examples of destruction of Gandharan art: the 2001 demolition of the Bamiyan Buddhas.
Prior to 2001, the Bamiyan Buddhas were considered “Afghanistan’s Stonehenge, the most celebrated archaeological site in the country: two colossal standing images of the Lord Buddha carved from a cliff of reddish conglomerate stone on the north side of a valley high in the hindu Kush mountains,” (Morgan, The Buddhas of Bamiyan, 2012, 4). A pair located about half a mile apart, the Bamiyan Buddhas towered over the landscape, standing at 180 and 124 feet tall in niches carved into the mountainside. The Bamiyan Buddhas, constructed in 615 and 550 CE respectively, hinted at lingering Gandharan influence, with the presence of wavy curls atop the larger Buddha’s head, akin to other Gandharan sculpture, though the pieces were more rigid in style likely due to their size.
The two Buddhas of Bamiyan prior to their destruction in 2001.
In the late 1990s, the sculptures came under attack from Taliban forces, but were ultimately preserved until 2001, when Mullah Omar, leader of the Taliban, issued the aforementioned edict that all non-Islamic statues and shrines be destroyed. After this edict, it took several weeks and a barrage of dynamite placed into drilled holes, artillery, and anti-aircraft weaponry to take down the massive Buddha statues. All these resources were dedicated to the destruction of Buddhist and Gandharan art – ultimately to reinforce Taliban rule and erase a history of cultural exchange in the region.
The niche which previously held the largest of the two Buddhas of Bamiyan, prior to its destruction.
This erasure, however, was not confined to the Bamiyan Buddhas or the museum objects in Kabul. In 2007, in Swat, Pakistan, the Pakistani Taliban carried out a similar cultural attack on the Buddha of Swat, a relief sculpture also carved into a cliff-face. Taliban forces drilled into the head and shoulders of the Buddha at Swat and destroyed half of its face with dynamite – a fate similar to the Bamiyan Buddhas. It was not until 2018 that restoration of the sculpture was finally completed. Restoration of the Bamiyan Buddhas has not been undertaken, but the site continues to serve as a tourist destination and a UNESCO World Heritage site. There are debates as to whether the Bamiyan Buddhas should be rebuilt – the Afghan government has lobbied UNESCO and the international community for funding for that purpose, but opponents say the millions needed for the project could be spent elsewhere, rather than on “fake Buddhas,”. Regardless of the fate of the Bamiyan site, it is undeniable that the Buddhas of Bamiyan and Swat, as well as Gandharan art at large, is representative of the interconnectedness and inclusivity of the ancient world – ideas which may be seen as a threat worthy of destruction.
The Buddha of Swat after its 2018 reconstruction.
Conclusion
Gandharan art is a testament to the interconnectedness present throughout the ancient world, and particularly in the region of Gandhara, a small area in Pakistan and Afghanistan that stood at a crossroads of imperial conquest, international trade, and religious practice. This rich history produced an art style composed of a variety of cultural aesthetics and backgrounds, and today, despite threats from illicit trade and cultural destruction, that style stands as a stellar example of cultural and religious syncretism.
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