The Battle of Thermopylae

A brief history of a historic last stand in the Greco-Persian Wars

Background:

King Xerxes (486–465 BCE), also known as Xerxes the Great, ruled over the Achaemenid Empire at its peak, encompassing vast territories stretching from the Indus Valley in the east to Thrace and Macedon in the west. The empire included modern-day Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Egypt, parts of Greece, and Central Asia (Holland, 2006). Xerxes inherited the empire from his father, Darius I, who had expanded its reach significantly.

Xerxes already possessed land north of Ancient Greece, however, his father had previously lost a major battle to Athenian forces in the Battle of Marathon (490 BCE) (Cartledge, 2006). Seeking to avenge his father and Persian dominance, Xerxes led hundreds of thousands of his troops south of Ancient Macedonia in efforts to capture Athens (Green, 1996).

King Xerxes marched a contingent of approximately 200,000 soldiers near the coastal plain of Trachis, 1 to 2 miles west of the battlefield (Holland, 2006).

Greek city-states, after hearing of the Persian advancement, formed an alliance to resist Xerxes invasion. King Leonidas od Sparta led a small Greek force of approximately 7,000 warriors to the pass at Thermopylae, were the Battle ultimately ensued (Cartledge, 2006).

Knowing of only one way through the mountain pass, King Xerxes sent wave after wave of Persian troops along the pass to rid of the Greek threat. After sustaining thousands of losses, Xerxes eventually learned of an alternate route around the pass and there ambushed the Greek Forces from both the front and rear (Green, 1996).

The Persian troops sustained thousands of losses to the Greek forces over the first two days of battle. During these assaults, Persian troops launched frontal attacks against a heavily trained and fortified Greek phalanx in the narrow pass (Holland, 2006).

Using the terrain to his advantage, King Leonidas strategically positioned his troops in the pass to only allow a limited number of Persians to attack at once. This strategy allowed the Greek forces to overcome the large force of Persians and prevented them from being engulfed due to the sheer numbers. This narrow pass and the Greek's elite training continued to neutralize the Persian numerical advantage over the course of the first two days of battle (Cartledge, 2006).

Only until the Greek traitor, Ephialtes, revealed a secret path circumnavigating Thermopylae did the Persians gain the upper hand in the fighting. On the third of fighting, upon learning of the Persian secondary advancement, King Leonidas dismissed most of the Greek allies to spare their lives for future battles and only he and approximately 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans remained to fight to the death. These Greek warriors made a heroic last stand but ultimately fell to the overwhelming Persian forces as they were flanked from the front and rear (Green, 1996).

After the Battle of Thermopylae, King Xerxes marched his remaining troops throughout Greece, eventually capturing the evacuated capital Athens before burning it as retribution for the previous Greek victory at the Battle of Marathon (Holland, 2006).

Despite their losses, Greek forces reconvened and concentrated on a naval strategy in order to counterattack the Persian fleet and forces. Due to other significant war strategies, Greek forces won decisive battles at the Salamis and Mycale, effectively ending the Persian invasion of Greece (Cartledge, 2006).

The Battle of Thermopylae played a crucial and strategic role in the eventual Greek victories, as it delayed the Persian advance in order for the Greek naval forces to convene and overtake the large Persian fleet. Additionally, this battle greatly improved moral amongst the warriors, unified the Greek city-states, demonstrated great Persian vulnerabilities, and even encouraged overreach by King Xerxes, leading to the ultimate withdrawal of his forces (Green, 1996).

The Battle of Thermopylae has helped shape the course of history throughout Europe and even maintains modern-day significance.

By resisting the Persian rule, Thermopylae and subsequent Greek victories helped preserve the independence of the Greek city-states, allowing Greek culture to flourish. The development of the Greek ideas of democracy, philosophy, and science continued to shape the western trajectory amongst itself and Europe (Holland, 2006).

The battle itself stands as a symbol of courage and self-sacrifice, as King Leonidas and his steadfast troops fought until the death due to their beliefs. Today it still stands as an inspiration for military and civilian resistance all over the world and emphasizes how a small but united group can make a significant impact.

References

Cartledge, P. (2006). Thermopylae: The battle that changed the world. The Overlook Press.

Cartwright, M. (2018, March 29). Thermopylae. World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 4, 2025, from  https://www.worldhistory.org/thermopylae/ 

Green, P. (1996). The Greco-Persian Wars. University of California Press.

Highbrow. (n.d.). The first Persian Empire. Retrieved January 4, 2025, from  https://gohighbrow.com/the-first-persian-empire/ 

HistoryTime. (2018, June 3). The Battle of Thermopylae 480 BC (The 300 Spartans) [Video]. YouTube.  https://youtu.be/UNmBEQ5YK8Y 

Holland, T. (2006). Persian fire: The first world empire and the battle for the West. Anchor Books.