Apsaalooke

The Apsáalooke people come from a rich culture, a proud people who still value traditions and morals that have been passed down. Stories of battles, mystical creatures, and spiritual medicine flood the land of the Apsáalooke. Before western medicine the Apsáalooke people were holistic, they had their medicines and doctors who treated them. 

Accordingly, Apsáalooke have preserved their culture and women’s roles are still held today. The kinship of the Apsáalooke is unique as the standards of marriage are not based off of love but rather a union between two families. The Apsáalooke are a matriarchal society and women play an important role in the community and are viewed as equal to their male counterpart. Apsáalooke woman have a unique merit as they are the owner of the household, materials, and children. Children always belong to the mother’s family.

If the husband was suitable by the family’s standards, then her family would supply the couple with everything needed to start their own family. In return, the husband’s family would gift horses, blankets and other valued items to the wife’s family in agreement to the marriage. If the husband was to die by misfortune the wife would be married to one of his brothers as his family had already paid for her hand in marriage. 

Menstruation was regarded as a powerful time for women. An Apsáalooke woman would sleep away from her family and abstained from sweat lodge and Sun Dance ceremonies. It was thought that a women’s power during menstruation was too overwhelming to be near people who were weak or sick. Menstruation was a time of meditation and cleansing.

The Apsáalooke believe in seeking help from spiritual helpers who guided pregnancy and childbirth. In oral tradition, Apsáalooke believed childbirth originated in several realms. These spiritual realms represented the 3 phases of pregnancy for the Apsáalooke. The Above world representative is Bíaxaake Akbualuushé, a fish-eating common merganser duck. It used the medicinal plants Baaichíhchishiishipite(black root) and Baailíchitche(sweet pine) The Surface of Earth realm was represented by Héettaaliile(The Great Horned Toad Doctor). It is said that if a midwife slid the horned toad down the back of a pregnant mother, and the toad slid with ease then the child would birth with ease. The Underwater Realm was represented by fish. It was said that when a mother was in labor someone was tasked with trapping a small fish in a bowl. The midwife would then scare the fish to which it would scurry hastily around the bowl. The mother was instructed to drink the water in the bowl. This act was done to hasten labor. The small fish was then released in the river and watched: if it sped off then the child was expected to live a healthy life. 

On the Apsáalooke reservation, a sacred wall is revered as the place where baby’s souls live. Expecting mothers would place dolls or bows and arrows in grooves of the wall with anticipation to draw the soul of a boy or girl. Barren women would leave beaded moccasins with hopes that a spirit would enter their womb. Apsáalooke men would fast upon the rims of this sacred wall, praying for his wife to bear a child.

When a woman becomes pregnant, she sought the advices of Biaanne Akdia(midwives), sisters, aunts and mothers. This was a process experienced by women for women and men did not concern themselves with the business of women. Apsáalooke women during pregnancy followed certain statues. Expecting mothers avoided cutting their hair, gathering materials for the child, wearing black clothing, and seeing the deceased. This tradition is still prevalent today. 

The dwelling where the woman is laboring is cleansed with smudge of either sweet sage, sweet grass, or flat cedar. Often, two sticks were placed deep in the ground and were then used as posts to support the mother. Using the posts as support she would squat down while laboring. Her Biaanne Akdia(midwife) would rub her back and belly with special herbs. She was instructed to drink a tea mixture of bear root and mint. 

Apsáalooke midwives Biaanne Akdia, obtain traditional knowledge passed down through generations and often worked closely with mothers and children. Their knowledge was widely sought after and before assimilation it was readily found. Apsáalooke midwives used a variety of over 300 medicinal plants that include peyote, bear root, and mint. (McCleary 2019) Peyote was viewed as a female spirit and in some cultures, the spirit of a pregnant woman. Oral history accounts peyote’s spirit as invoking the same emotions of a pregnant woman, fluctuating highs and lows. During labor peyote was given to pregnant women to ease the pain of labor and calm the spirit. 

Umbilical cords have a spiritual significance to the Apsáalooke, usually they were cut leaving four inches attached to the baby. When the dried umbilical cord fell off, mothers would bead a natal amulet pouch around it and as the child grew, they would wear it. For girls the pouch was placed on the back of her elk tooth dress and for boys is hung it off their belt. The relevance of the umbilical cord differed from male and female. (Voget 1995) For women it was a connective gesture with her ancestors; a way to not forget where she came from. For men it was thought to protect him from illness, keep him strong, healthy, and productive.

New Apsáalooke babies were not named until 4 days after birth by their father’s clan, at this same time the child’s ears were pierced. The Apsáalooke ways paid for the services of a helper, whether they helped with spiritual healing, naming or midwifery. Everything was done in fours, a payment was often a horse, a blanket, tobacco and dress making material. 

New babies did not sleep with their mother until about five months old, this job was designated to the grandmother. The grandmother would then bring the baby to the mother every time the baby would need to nurse. Grandmother’s play an important role in raising children. 

Kinship to the Apsáalooke is revered as wealth meaning the more family you have the wealthier you are. If it was said that you had no family it should be taken as an insult. (Voget 1995) Duties within the family varied and child rearing was often taken up by the grandmother, a practice common today. Traditionally, the first-born grandchild never belonged to the parents, but was given to the grandparents to raise. This first child is often gifted with many things and referred to as Kaalishbabida(Grandmother’s grandchild). Apsáalooke kinship is a multifaceted concept expanding wealth of family by extended family, adopted family, and clan. 

The Apsáalooke have subgroups within the tribe that are an establishment of kin. The clan systems are matrilineal, meaning membership is determined by one’s mother and their sub clan was determined by one’s father. The Apsáalooke word for clan is Ashammale’axameaning driftwood lodges.  Ashammale’axais descriptive of how driftwood clings together in strength and support of another in the water. The clan system is probably the most important social structure when trying to understand the Apsáalooke culture. (Irvin 1995) Roles within the clan vary, the maternal clan is responsible for the physical care and needs; while the paternal sub clan is responsible for the spiritual well-being. Invitations are extended to the paternal clan for naming and well wishes to be bestowed. Teasing cousins are children of the paternal clan members, these individuals are responsible for teasing or making fun of a mistake the clan child has made. (Hoxie 1995) Teasing was a way of keeping that person in line or a device of social control. The clan child was not allowed to get upset or mad at this. (Irvin 1995) Many practical jokes and made up stories are created to generate a bond out of humor and laughter. Apsáalooke clan systems are competitive by nature and marrying within the clans was considered incest regardless of any actual blood relation. 

After the Fort Laramie Treaty, the population decreased in 1887 to 2,456, then further reduced in 1910 to 1,740 due primarily to malnutrition and disease. Nearly 1/3 of the Apsáalooke population had died between 1881-1890, most were under the age of 20. A large gap in the population suggests that a whole generation was lost. (Hoxie 1995) The Apsáalooke thrived off the land, a nomadic people for generations, this new shift to agriculture and diet had devasting repercussions on the population, social status of the people, and overall health. 

Lists and data points are all that where written down by government officials, leaving out the voice of elders and a series of tragic moments leading toward assimilation.

Throughout the 1910s, the Office of Indian Affairs (OIA) began to promote the assimilation and Save the Babies Campaign. (Theobald, 2019) Baby contests became a popular and most often Indian babies were awarded if their mothers exhibited markers for assimilation. 

Mothers had to dismiss the reproductive knowledge that had been passed down by grandmothers. Mothers were encouraged to learn the western colonial approach to motherhood. 

Native women fell under more scrutiny when their matriarchal societal norms did not fallow the nuclear family standard. Grandmothers, aunts and other women of the society often had large roles in a child’s upbringing. The OIA wanted Native mothers to sway away from their culture all together in order to “Save the Babies”. By the mid-1910’s, OIA wanted more Native women to seek the care of the hospital when with child, it was necessary that mothers take advice from western doctors rather than traditional healers.

OIA and Indian Health Service have a long relationship with the Apsáalooke, although their motives have been successful in many forms except for breaking the culture. For nearly 100 years, the Apsáalooke had kept much of their culture intact but steady changes to health have had a larger impact on maternal health. 

Adequate healthcare and resources fall short on Indian reservations. The availability of healthy nutritious foods, mental, physical and prenatal healthcare are deficient. These resources play important roles in determining the health and risks of Apsáalooke mothers and babies. Newly introduced diseases like preeclampsia and type 2 diabetes have increased maternal morbity among Native Americans.

Assimilation has eliminated the traditional knowledge and replaced it with faulty government healthcare. 29% of Native American births have complications due to one or more morbidities. 

From the Fort Laramie treaty to today, reservation maternal health and prosperity has decreased significantly due to the shift in Native people’s diets, historical trauma and cultural assimilation. 

References

Bacak, Stephen J.Tucker,Myra. Paisano,Edna. (2007) Maternal morbidity during Delivery Hospitalizations in American Indian and Alaska Native Women,The IHS Primary Care Provider, Vol.32 (issue 2), 22pages.

Cogan, P. (1990). A vision quest exploring native american views of menstruation. Psychological Perspectives, 22(1), 94–101. doi: 10.1080/00332929008408093

Cox, J. (1989). Dangerous Definitions: Female Tricksters in Contemporary Native American Literature. Wicazo Sa Review, 5(2), 17. doi: 10.2307/1409399

Grim, J. A., & Tooker, E. (1986). Native North American Spirituality of the Eastern Woodlands: Sacred Myths, Dreams, Visions, Speeches, Healing Formulas, Rituals and Ceremonials. American Indian Quarterly, 10(3), 234. doi: 10.2307/1184126

Hoxie, F. E. (1997). Parading through history: the making of the Crow nation in America, 1805-1935. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Irvin, B. F. (1995). Language and culture mobilization in public schools on the Crow reservation since the Crow Act of 1920. University of Montana.

Lans, C., Taylor-Swanson, L., & Westfall, R. (2018). Herbal fertility treatments used in North America from colonial times to 1900, and their potential for improving the success rate of assisted reproductive technology. Reproductive Biomedicine & Society Online, 5, 60–81. doi: 10.1016/j.rbms.2018.03.001

McCleary, T. (2019). PDF (Crow Midwifery). Crow Agency .

Moerman, D. E., & Moerman, D. E. (2009). Native American medicinal plants: an ethnobotanical dictionary. Portland: Timber Press.

Studies the remedies and ritual/ magic that produce fertility in North American Tribes. What forces are play when a couple wants a child, what they do and take to make this task attainable. 

Snell, A. H., & Castle, L. (2006). A taste of heritage: Crow Indian recipes and herbal medicines. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Snell, A. H., & Matthews, B. (2000). Grandmothers grandchild: my Crow Indian life. Lincoln, Neb.: Univ. of Nebraska Press.

Theobald, B. (2019). Reproduction on the reservation: pregnancy, childbirth, and colonialism in the long twentieth century. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Voget, F. W., & Mee, M. K. (2001). They call me Agnes: a Crow narrative based on the life of Agnes Yellowtail Deernose. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Black & White phots taken by Edward Curtis, Richard Throssel and Edward Becker during Assimilation period.

Colored photo taken by Old Elk Family - Apsaalooke