The Evolution of Ayurveda
the transformation of an ancient form of medicine
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THE FUNDAMENTALS OF AYURVEDIC MEDICINE
Derived from ancient scriptures and traditional understandings of the world, Ayurveda is one of the oldest traditional medical systems that has continued to prosper and transform throughout space and time.
This form of medicine integrates knowledge about the body in relation to the natural world. The guiding principle is that health and wellness are dependent on the balance of the mind, body, and spirit, all of which integrate to promote prosperity and strength in bodily forces. Ayurveda states that the universe consists of five elements: “Vayu (Air), Jala (Water), Aakash (Space), Prithvi (Earth) and Teja (Fire)” (Jaiswal 2018).
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Integration of the elements to form the Ayurvedic doshas
The three basic components of the human body, Vata, Pitta, and Kapha, are the integration of the five elements of the universe and they control the physiological functions of the body. Vata is in charge of the body’s catabolism, and it maintains cellular transport, electrolyte balance, and the elimination of waste products. Pitta controls the body’s metabolism, such as body temperature, hunger, thirst, and optic nerve coordination. Kapha controls anabolism and allows for joint lubrication to promote proper functioning when the body has an abundance of fats. This complex system of ancient knowledge has been more widely accepted throughout the years as global understandings of empiricism and reason within the texts have increased.
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Yogis in ancient India performing Ayurvedic treatment
AYURVEDA’S HISTORICAL ORIGINS
The foundations of Ayurveda are rooted in the ancient school of Hindu Philosophical teachings, Vaisheshika, and the school of logic, Nyaya. Vaisheshika taught about the integration of inferences and perceptions with the patient’s treatment, and Nyaya preaches that there is a certain value in understanding the patient’s condition extensively prior to providing treatment. Eventually, these two schools combined and became the nyaya-vaisheshika school which disseminated the age-old knowledge of Ayurvedic medicines.
Before these schools had circulated the concepts, Ayurveda is thought to be a divine form of knowledge and healing originating from Brahma, the Hindu God who is the creator of the universe. It is thought that this information has been passed down from Brahma to generations of sages and then to their disciples. It was composed between 500-1000 BCE in Sanskrit scriptures. The healing properties of the herbs were written in the form of poems which are called Shlokas, all of which are compiled into the Vedas which are forms of ancient Hindu knowledge. The scriptures in the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda were written by Atreya who acquired the philosophies from Lord Indra who received them from Brahma. These writings, now known as Charaka Samhita (which focuses on internal medicine) and Susruta Samhita (which focuses on surgery), are considered the Ayurvedic classical scriptures. As you can see below, the map represents the Indian regions where herbs were derived and denoted in the Charaka Samhita. Many of the herbal medicines are named after their areas of origin, such as Magadhi which is derived from Maghada, or Vatsaka derived from Vatsa. The geographical reach that Ayurvedic medicine had is quite fascinating because, during such an early time, there was a wide variety of areas in which herbal medicines were discovered and utilized under the Ayurvedic foundation.
Geographical origin of the herbal medicines used in Ayurveda
Age-old epics, such as the Ramayana and the Mahabaratha, have references to illness, diseases, drugs, and surgeries on bodies on the battlefield. The current form of scripture and knowledge of Ayurveda was refined during India’s Golden Age, 320-550 CE. Numerous ancient societies had various treatments and remedies for illness treatment, but most of these remedies were “not based on any logical understandings of illness or of drugs” (Narayanaswamy 1981, 2). On the other hand, the Ayurvedic system is based on rational foundations which are time-withstanding as they do not change over generations. As Narayanaswamy states in Origin and Development of Ayurveda,
Civilization may change, human habits may change, the environment may change but humanity remains the same. Changes in the environment, new modes of living, new avocations, all might contribute to certain modifications of a disease or the appearance of new diseases. But disease attacks the human hot, and as long as the human being is very much the same as his ancestor, the reactions to the disease, signs and symptoms would be the same (Narayanaswamy 1981, 2).
Although criticism exists about the lack of experimentally based proof to support the logic behind Ayurvedic treatments, the individuals who derived this system of medicine are said to be on a higher level of spiritual and intellectual knowledge. Somehow, they had a certain intuition that has guided them towards these higher forms of truth that can alleviate human suffering.
Age-old form of healing ailments
TRANSFORMATION OF AYURVEDA OVER TIME
The history of invasion and colonization within India is by no means a short tale.
British Colonial Influences
India has been known for its renowned collection of spices, textiles, and glorious land in the Indus Valley. The thirteenth-century invasions by Genghis Khan and the Mongols and the sixteenth-century invasion by the Mughals did not diminish the importance of Ayurveda for a majority of the Indian population. The East India Company and the British Crown also invaded India for a period of time, during which the British botanists sought to put together various scriptures about Indian medicinal herbs. However, the British knowledge base and foundational understandings were so different that these efforts actually silenced the voices of native Ayurvedic practitioners and teachers. The techniques were misrepresented within the larger urban areas; however, the original knowledge survived in rural areas which allowed for its revival after India gained back its independence from the British Crown rule. The revival of Ayurveda has not truly done justice to the traditional practice because the British Orientalist influences have tarnished its original teachings. The Orientalists translated ancient Sanskrit and Vedic texts and reinvigorated an intellectual renaissance out of an appreciation of ancient Indian knowledge, but a denigration of the contemporary ways of life at the time. After the British Orientalist discourse was abandoned around 1835 when the first Ayurvedic hospital was shut down because only Western medical hospitals could receive state sponsorships, a movement of class-consciousness and anti-colonial notions washed over the Indian citizens. In light of this movement, the goal was to prove to the world and themselves that India is a prosperous and accomplished country in the modern global sphere. Thus, Ayurveda, a source of much praise and recognition, was fashioned into an element of modernity and scientific progress. Below is a quote from Medicine and Modernity: The Ayurvedic Revival Movement in India, 1885-1947 by Ganesan:
Like the early reform movements that British Orientalism spawned, the ayurvedic revival movement also re-interpreted and defended Hindu civilization in the light of modern European scientific thought (Ganesan 2010, 115).
Standardization and Pharmaceuticalization
The denunciation of Ayurveda in the Western medical community, for example, Surgeon General (of Bombay) Hooton’s characterization of ayurveda as being based on “erroneous theories” that “cannot bear comparison with the modern system of Medicine founded on recent advances in Science” called for a reformation and defense against the British perspectives (Ganesan 2010, 115). Not only was there a defense of the antiquity and virtuous knowledge by ayurvedic practitioners, but several motivations promoted the integration of the Indian system of medicine with Western biomedicine. The colonial government had strong reigns in the medical playing field, thus leading to the acceptance of western medicine as rooted in modernity, rationality, and research. By the early twentieth century, western medicine in India was so deeply rooted that the ayurvedic revivalists had to come to terms with its unwavering presence. They believed that for Ayurveda to survive the test of time, it must be integrated with elements of allopathic medicine.
Ayurvedic figure compared to a Western medical figure
Practitioners would promote Ayurveda on a nationalist platform by expressing its association with the Indian identity. There was a split between advocating for a pure Ayurvedic sentiment, suddha, and an integrated approach called medical syncretism. Regardless, Ayurvedic medicines had to be standardized and radically transformed in order to compete with colonially imposed challenges that include:
the ready availability of mass-produced medicines (unknown to medical practice elsewhere in the world); a continuous output of information regarding the large number of new medicines for various ailments that were on the market; and, most of all, the efficacy of the new medicines as compared to the old (Banerjee 2008, 201).
according to Banerjee in Ayurveda in Modern India, Standardization and Pharmaceuticalization. Essentially, the pharmaceuticalization of Ayurveda has resulted in the shrinking of this medical system to conform to the preexisting western medical system, taking away from the uniqueness and alternative perspective that it offers. The modern reality of Ayurveda is much different from what it used to be; once a source of healing passed on through spiritual devotion and compassion for mankind has now conformed to the contemporary global structures of the West. This can be seen through the mass production of herbal medicines that must go through the process of randomized clinical trials to be recognized as effective for the global market. The attempt to synthesize the medical systems is continual; however, the underlying foundation of Ayurveda compared to that of western medicine is completely contradictory. According to Langford in Ayurvedic Interiors: Person, Space, and Episteme in Three Medical Practices, modern medicine separates diseases within the body from its social context and formulates the body and person as
acted upon rather than as acting (Foucault).
whereas Ayurvedic medicine integrates the body with the natural world, interweaving psychological, social, and physiological factors, accounting for the connection between the mind and body. However, the Indian citizens themselves contribute to the integration of medical systems by consulting physicians who practice different therapies. For example, Mysoreans seeking healthcare have tended to consult allopathic doctors initially and if the results were not to their liking, they would seek Ayurvedic care, essentially furthering medical pluralism (Nisula 2006, 215).
Spices and herbs used in Ayurvedic treatments
Integrated Medical Education in India
Ayurvedic colleges have continued to mushroom all throughout India in the past 130 years, perpetuating a substandard quality of education amongst medical students. As of now, there are 240 Ayurvedic colleges, 186 of which are private and 56 of which are government instituted. Below is a graph that details the influx of medical colleges in the last 30 years which suffer from infrastructural constraints.
The distribution of Ayurvedic colleges in India over time
Exposure to clinical experience is low and not all of the teachers are qualified enough to provide proper education for the students. Additionally, the medical entrance process is all too similar to the biomedical process as there are examinations to be taken in order to get accepted. An example of the incorporation of the two systems of medicine is the Transdisciplinary University which incorporates biomedical diagnostics with Ayurvedic pancakarma. Essentially, there happens to be much confusion surrounding how the Ayurvedic education system should properly integrate biomedicine and the traditional Indian medicine as tensions continue to exist.
Ayurvedic Colleges distributed throughout India
Above is a map of the distribution of Ayurvedic colleges throughout India. The colleges are distributed all throughout India which shows how many colleges are emerging. This map does not include every Ayurvedic college, but it shows the diverse geographical locations they exist within.
Conclusion
Fundamentally, British colonization in India drastically changed the local landscape and heavily influenced the presence of Ayurvedic medicine. The intertwining of western medicine and Ayurveda increased the reach of Ayurveda on a global sphere. Although it has changed over time due to the political and social forces enacted upon it, this medical system has survived the test of time and continues to be an extremely renowned source of medical knowledge.