Remembering Benefit Street

Benefit Street frames the neighborhood of College Hill and Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, as one of the highest concentrations of colonial domestic architecture in the United States. The thoroughfare is known by many as the "Mile of History" for its historic brick sidewalks, restored 19th-century buildings, cultural institutions, libraries, and abundant tree canopy. From monumental sites such as the Nightingale-Brown House, the former mansion of merchant Joseph Nightingale and five generations of the Brown family, to more quaint residences, the landscape brings the observer back to the Early Victorian period as a window into the past.

It will surprise many College Hill visitors to know that Benefit Street has not remained the same since the 18th century. Rather, it was curated through a series of coordinated urban development and renewal initiatives spearheaded by the Providence Preservation Society (PPS) in 1959. [1] Through slum clearance—restoring, demolishing, and relocating historic houses to the street—preservationists leveraged private financing to erase the landscape that was once a diverse Black community. [2] This story is left untold, unwritten, and expunged from the contemporary street, raising critical questions on the uneven outcomes of putting a price on heritage and memory for one of the first times in American history.

Through a comprehensive review of archived documents and oral histories, this exhibit seeks to tell the story of Benefit Street prior to renewal. To declare the value of these homes as significant, but their residents as not, was to devalue the heritage of this community as inferior. Providence preservationists fueled the gentrification of the East Side by identifying the market for "historically significant" architecture in a profit-driven plan that has been modeled across the world. We must know the names and stories that occupied this space. Otherwise, these communities are reduced to a numerical value, lost in a series of displacements that exacerbate existing spatial inequalities and create unevenness in the urban landscape.

This exhibit was created by Brian Thompson, a Sophomore at Brown University, for the seminar "Heritage in the Metropolis: Remembering and Preserving the Urban Past" (URBN 1280) taught by Professor Lauren Yapp in Fall 2021.

The Providence Preservation Society (PPS) was established in 1956 by residents and preservationists such as Antoinette Downing, an architectural historian at Brown University, in response to the impending demolition of the East Side. As student enrollments increased at Brown University, efforts to expand had materialized in the rapid construction of University Heights (Lippitt Hill), Wriston Quadrangle, and Keeney Quadrangle from 1950-1970. [3]

This was done without respect to historic preservation, garnering criticism from Antoinette Downing for failing to protect the architectural legacy of Providence in its early foundations. By the late 1950s, members of Providence's elite teamed with investors and the City Plan Commission to create a new theoretical orientation for urban development guidelines titled College Hill: A Demonstration Study for Historic Area Renewal (1959). [4]

Providence preservationists, dismayed with plans to demolish houses on Benefit Street deemed historically significant, became part of a market-driven campaign to renew the area without changing the architecture of the landscape. Briann Greenfield, Director of the Division of Preservation and Access at the National Endowment for the Humanities, writes on this process in Giving Preservation a History (2004). In aligning with urban development, Greenfield highlights, "rather than saving buildings by taking them off the market, these preservationists saved buildings by raising their market value." [5] Culminating in College Hill: A Demonstration Study of Historic Area Renewal (1959), planners adopted historic preservation standards by labeling certain areas as "slums" if they were deemed not profitable enough to restore. [6] The guidelines were created by Antoinette Downing, who "surveyed 1,350 of the approximately 1,700 buildings in the College Hill area, ranking each according to its historical significance, architectural quality, and physical condition." Without the voice of any residents, these guidelines paved the way for several for-profit preservation companies to begin transforming Benefit Street into a wealthy historic district. [7]

In 1967, the City Plan Commission assessed changes to the neighborhood bounded by Benefit Street and released a second edition of College Hill: A Demonstration Study of Historic Area Renewal (1967). The study determined that "the most significant result of the College Hill Study can be seen in the amount of privately financed restoration activity...the exteriors of nearly 150 houses have been restored..." [8]. The largest came from the Burnside Company, whose strategy focused on buying and selling restored homes. Roger Brassard, a real estate broker for Burnside, is widely referenced in oral histories for his forceful interactions with Black residents who did not wish to sell their property. [9] After these residents were displaced, property values on Benefit Street soared, and high-income residents flooded the neighborhood.

Once these homes had been purchased and restored, the Providence Preservation Society (PPS) placed markers on the front of each home that remain today. Mary A. Gowdey, volunteer for the PPS, worked with Antoinette Downing to research the initial owner(s) and date of construction for each house. Their findings remain available in the Mary A. Gowdey Library of House Histories, and outline the process by which those displaced from Benefit Street were then erased from history. [10]

Benefit Street is now a misleading series of restored houses, designated based on an entirely white past. The resulting lack of authenticity raises critical questions to be explored: Who lived on Benefit Street? What businesses existed? How did its residents interact with the landscape? What memories were displaced?

The primary recollection of Benefit Street prior to urban renewal lies in oral histories. On September 15th, 1999, local historian Ray Rickman invited 17 Black residents of College Hill from 1950-1979 to tell their stories at the Urban League of Rhode Island. [11] Later, on June 29th, 2017, Rickman received funding from the Heritage Harbor Foundation and invited residents of Lippitt Hill to share insights on the East Side at the Rochambeau Library in Providence. [12]

Aside from oral histories, archived government documents and digital collections have opened the opportunity to spatially reconstruct the neighborhood. The 1940 United States Federal Census lists several Black families as residents on Benefit Street, as does Providence's House Directory and Family Address Book, which stopped being published in 1935. [13]

Aside from single-family residences, several Black-owned businesses, churches, and cultural institutions have been photographed and recorded throughout library archives in Providence. The visual changes to the landscape are well-documented; beyond the photos, these sources begin to illustrate the story of a vibrant community lost in the crosshairs of development. [14]

The following Story Map, developed in ArcGIS, lists several Benefit Street addresses that once served as homes, community centers, local businesses, and religious institutions with significance to Black Heritage in Providence. The images depicting buildings prior to restoration are from the  Mary A. Gowdey Library of House Histories  at the Providence Preservation Society (PPS) and the  Laurence E. Tilley Photography Collection  at the Providence Public Library (PPL).

Although this history is by no means complete, investigating the Benefit Street neighborhood before being displaced provides an initial understanding of the ways in which historic preservation methods shifted from opponent to proponent of urban development. The release of College Hill: A Demonstration Study of Historic Area Renewal (1959) invited private finance and profit-driven restoration into the neighborhood, making preservation and renewal synonymous with gentrification. By 1967, newspaper articles and advertisements attracted white, high-income families into Benefit Street who were willing to pay price premiums for a colonial historic designation on the house. What exists today is an aestheticized urban landscape that was curated to match an imagined colonial past and erase complex realities.

The story of Benefit Street, and the designation of College Hill as a Historic District, is one of unevenness, racism, and displacement. For decades, those privileged enough to afford the colonial history that Antoinette Downing and the City Planning Commission wished to preserve benefited. Simultaneously, Black residents were subjected to discriminatory real estate practices, Black-owned businesses in College Hill dissolved, and Black memories disappeared from the street.

In recent years, scholars in the heritage field have drawn from works in architecture, anthropology, history, and urban studies to begin challenging these problematic developments. In fact, Antoinette Downing later recognized the harm of the College Hill study, and even became an activist for low-income housing improvements. [37] Unfortunately, many urban planning procedures and proposals still fail to incorporate the voices of those impacted. Changes to the landscape cannot leave behind opportunities to displace memories for profits, or what happened on Benefit Street will continue to be replicated in postmodern cities throughout the world.

[1] Edwards. (2018). To the Benefit of Few: The Histories of the Providence Preservation Society. Retrieved from  http://www.theindy.org/article/1378 

[2] Klemesrud. (1985). Her Mission Is Preserving Providence. New York Times (1923-), C8–.

[3] Li. (2009). When building Brown meant burning bridges. Retrieved from  https://www.browndailyherald.com/article/2009/10/when-building-brown-meant-burning-bridges/ 

[4] Greenfield, Briann. (2004). Marketing the Past: Historic Preservation in Providence, Rhode Island. In: M Page and R Mason (Eds) Giving Preservation a History: Histories of Historic Preservation in the United States. New York: Routledge, pp. 163-184.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Harrington. (1959). College Hill: a demonstration study of historic area renewal. City Plan Commission.

[7] Greenfield, Briann. (2004). Marketing the Past: Historic Preservation in Providence, Rhode Island. In: M Page and R Mason (Eds) Giving Preservation a History: Histories of Historic Preservation in the United States. New York: Routledge, pp. 163-184.

[8] Harrington. (1967). College Hill: a demonstration study of historic area renewal. City Plan Commission.

[9] Rickman. (1999). African Americans on College Hill, 1950-1979. [Urban League of Rhode Island].

[10] Woodward. (2021). Mary A. Gowdey Library of House Histories, Providence Preservation Society. Retrieved from  https://gowdey.ppsri.org/?street=about 

[11] Rickman. (1999). African Americans on College Hill, 1950-1979. [Urban League of Rhode Island].

[12] Stages of Freedom. (2017). Lippitt Hill Project. Retrieved from  https://www.stagesoffreedom.org/lippitt-hill-project 

[13] United States Census. (1940). Ancestry (Library Edition). Available from  https://www.ancestrylibrary.com/?userid=9347&parentid=9347&expires=2021%2f12%2f13+19%3a02%3a59&libname=BROWN+UNIVERSITY+LIBRARY-ROCKEFELLER+LIBRARY&hash=4uzRjN5toBD7Vfyzro2tAQ%3d%3d 

[14] U.S. Department of the Interior. (2018). National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Registration Form. National Park Service. Retrieved from  https://preservation.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur406/files/pdfs_zips_downloads/national_pdfs/providence/prov_college-hill-hd-2018.pdf .

[15] Rickman. (1999). African Americans on College Hill, 1950-1979. [Urban League of Rhode Island].

[16] U.S. Department of the Interior. (2018). National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Registration Form. National Park Service. Retrieved from  https://preservation.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur406/files/pdfs_zips_downloads/national_pdfs/providence/prov_college-hill-hd-2018.pdf .

[17] Rickman. (1999). African Americans on College Hill, 1950-1979. [Urban League of Rhode Island].

[18] U.S. Department of the Interior. (2018). National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Registration Form. National Park Service. Retrieved from  https://preservation.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur406/files/pdfs_zips_downloads/national_pdfs/providence/prov_college-hill-hd-2018.pdf .

[19] Ibid.

[20] Ibid.

[21] Rickman. (1999). African Americans on College Hill, 1950-1979. [Urban League of Rhode Island].

[22] U.S. Department of the Interior. (2018). National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Registration Form. National Park Service. Retrieved from  https://preservation.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur406/files/pdfs_zips_downloads/national_pdfs/providence/prov_college-hill-hd-2018.pdf .

[23] Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, The New York Public Library. (1947). Green Book: 1947. Retrieved from  https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/29219280-892b-0132-4271-58d385a7bbd0 

[24] U.S. Department of the Interior. (2018). National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Registration Form. National Park Service. Retrieved from  https://preservation.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur406/files/pdfs_zips_downloads/national_pdfs/providence/prov_college-hill-hd-2018.pdf .

[25] Stages of Freedom. (2017). Lippitt Hill Project. Retrieved from  https://www.stagesoffreedom.org/lippitt-hill-project 

[26] Olney Street Baptist Church. (2021). Our History. Retrieved from  https://www.olneystreet.com/our-history 

[27] Congdon Street Baptist Church. (2021). Our History. Retrieved from  https://www.congdonstreet.org/our-history/ 

[28] Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, The New York Public Library. (1947). Green Book: 1947. Retrieved from  https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/29219280-892b-0132-4271-58d385a7bbd0 

[29] U.S. Department of the Interior. (2018). National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Registration Form. National Park Service. Retrieved from  https://preservation.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur406/files/pdfs_zips_downloads/national_pdfs/providence/prov_college-hill-hd-2018.pdf .

[30] Rickman. (1999). African Americans on College Hill, 1950-1979. [Urban League of Rhode Island].

[31] Ibid.

[32] United States Census. (1940). Ancestry (Library Edition). Available from  https://www.ancestrylibrary.com/?userid=9347&parentid=9347&expires=2021%2f12%2f13+19%3a02%3a59&libname=BROWN+UNIVERSITY+LIBRARY-ROCKEFELLER+LIBRARY&hash=4uzRjN5toBD7Vfyzro2tAQ%3d%3d 

[33] Rickman. (1999). African Americans on College Hill, 1950-1979. [Urban League of Rhode Island].

[34] Ibid.

[35] U.S. Department of the Interior. (2018). National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Registration Form. National Park Service. Retrieved from  https://preservation.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur406/files/pdfs_zips_downloads/national_pdfs/providence/prov_college-hill-hd-2018.pdf .

[36] Rickman. (1999). African Americans on College Hill, 1950-1979. [Urban League of Rhode Island].

[37] Greenfield, Briann. (2004). Marketing the Past: Historic Preservation in Providence, Rhode Island. In: M Page and R Mason (Eds) Giving Preservation a History: Histories of Historic Preservation in the United States. New York: Routledge, pp. 163-184.

Congdon Street Baptist Church. (2021). Our History. Retrieved from  https://www.congdonstreet.org/our-history/ 

Cool. (1954). Old East Side Blight War-Target. The Providence Journal. Available from Readex: America's Historical Newspapers:  https://infoweb-newsbank-com.revproxy.brown.edu/apps/readex/doc?p=EANX&docref=image/v2%3A14728889532D3B69%40EANX-1641EFAEBAE34A71%402434795-164056BE065D5573%4068-164056BE065D5573%40 .

Edwards. (2018). To the Benefit of Few: The Histories of the Providence Preservation Society. Retrieved from  http://www.theindy.org/article/1378 

Gast, F. M. (2011). A half-century of change on College Hill: institutional growth, historic preservation, and the College Hill Study. Planning for Higher Education, 39(3), 139-. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A299639654/AONE?u=anon~c0c9c962&sid=googleScholar&xid=62a1c7c4 

Greene. (1958). Cities Battle for Survival. The Providence Journal. Available from Readex: America's Historical Newspapers:  https://infoweb-newsbank-com.revproxy.brown.edu/apps/readex/doc?p=EANX&docref=image/v2%3A14728889532D3B69%40EANX-1644DE344BA2D40E%402436244-16446DF8286F37A4%40119-16446DF8286F37A4%40 .

Greenfield, Briann. (2004). Marketing the Past: Historic Preservation in Providence, Rhode Island. In: M Page and R Mason (Eds) Giving Preservation a History: Histories of Historic Preservation in the United States. New York: Routledge, pp. 163-184.

Gregory. (2013). The Radiant University: Space, Urban Redevelopment, and the Public Good: The Radiant University. City & Society, 25(1), 47–69.  https://doi.org/10.1111/ciso.12011 

Harrington. (1959). College Hill: a demonstration study of historic area renewal. City Plan Commission.

Harrington. (1967). College Hill: a demonstration study of historic area renewal. City Plan Commission.

Howard. (1964). A Future in the Past. The Providence Journal. Available from Readex: America's Historical Newspapers:  https://infoweb-newsbank-com.revproxy.brown.edu/apps/readex/doc?p=EANX&docref=image/v2%3A14728889532D3B69%40EANX-164799CE0320C731%402438428-16478954A3122ED0%40110-16478954A3122ED0%40 .

Jerzyk, Matthew. (2009). Gentrification’s Third Way: An Analysis of Housing Policy & Gentrification in Providence.” Harvard Law & Policy Review.

Klemesrud. (1985). Her Mission Is Preserving Providence. New York Times (1923-), C8–.

Li. (2009). When building Brown meant burning bridges. Retrieved from  https://www.browndailyherald.com/article/2009/10/when-building-brown-meant-burning-bridges/ 

Mitchell. (1993). Encyclopedia Brunoniana. Brown University Library.

Olney Street Baptist Church. (2021). Our History. Retrieved from  https://www.olneystreet.com/our-history 

Rickman. (1999). African Americans on College Hill, 1950-1979. [Urban League of Rhode Island].

Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, The New York Public Library. (1947). Green Book: 1947. Retrieved from  https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/29219280-892b-0132-4271-58d385a7bbd0 

Stages of Freedom. (2017). Lippitt Hill Project. Retrieved from  https://www.stagesoffreedom.org/lippitt-hill-project 

Tilley. (1958). Providence Public Library [Laurence E. Tilley Photograph Collection]. Retrieved from  https://provlibdigital.org/islandora/object/islandora:038-03 

United States Census. (1940). Ancestry (Library Edition). Available from  https://www.ancestrylibrary.com/?userid=9347&parentid=9347&expires=2021%2f12%2f13+19%3a02%3a59&libname=BROWN+UNIVERSITY+LIBRARY-ROCKEFELLER+LIBRARY&hash=4uzRjN5toBD7Vfyzro2tAQ%3d%3d 

U.S. Department of the Interior. (1970). National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Nomination Form. National Park Service. Retrieved from  https://npgallery.nps.gov/AssetDetail/5dbd5b06-b23d-44d3-9fda-032eae107a23 .

U.S. Department of the Interior. (2018). National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Registration Form. National Park Service. Retrieved from  https://preservation.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur406/files/pdfs_zips_downloads/national_pdfs/providence/prov_college-hill-hd-2018.pdf .

Woodward. (2021). Mary A. Gowdey Library of House Histories, Providence Preservation Society. Retrieved from  https://gowdey.ppsri.org/?street=about 

Youngs. (2018). Urban Renewal and Rhode Island: A Complicated History. Retrieved from  http://library.providence.edu/encompass/african-american-civil-rights-in-rhode-island/primary-sources/photograph-of-lippitt-hill-redevelopment-project/