Collaboration and Companionship

Adolf Hitler assumes control of the Third Reich.

Anti-semitic decrees started as early as April of 1933. Soon the laws infiltrated daily life. 

On the other side of the Atlantic, advances in education were well along the way. Abraham Flexner, the founding Director of the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) located at Princeton, New Jersey, started his search for faculty members. Flexner wanted "only the very best researchers" because he aimed "to elevate scholarship in the United States" by providing "ideal conditions to conduct research and train a few Ph.D. students". [2] With help from Oswald Veblen, mathematics professor at Princeton University for 27 years before being elected as one of the institute's first faculty members, the two advocated for the immigration of some of the most influential scholars of the 20th century. 

For more information on  Oswald Veblen 

Weyl cherished his time in the United States. At the Institute for Advanced Study Weyl helped build “the collection for the library and he became very involved with its operations, serving as head of the Library Committee.”[3] He rightfully earned his position because of his passion for philosophy and literary style. The IAS library now houses hundreds of publications ranging from historical studies to the natural sciences. During the war years Weyl focused on the advancement of military related technology. He worked on various problems in fluid dynamics and the theory of shock waves. Through diligent work, Weyl earned an esteemed reputation as a mathematician.

Weyl collaborated with Veblen on the evacuation of mathematicians to America. The new Nazi rule caused a surge in immigration to the United States during the 1930s. Weyl became a significant figure who helped scientists immigrate to various locations in the world. His “mathematical brilliance made him an ideal person to handle the many delicate cases among the emigrants, not a few of whom had an inflated ego that could only be calmed down in view of Weyl’s superior personality.”[5] Despite limited funds, he continually supported the relocation of immigrants.

Weyl founded the German Mathematicians’ Relief Fund with Emmy Noether in 1934. Noether had also fled left Germany in 1933 with the help of Veblen. She worked at Bryn Mawr college and regularly gave guest lectures at the Institute for Advanced Study. Weyl and Noether’s relative proximity in the United States and common German heritage paved the path for a new friendship that ultimately led to collaboration that helped fellow scholars like them. The small funds made them rely on additional monetary sources from external foundations. Weyl actively sought to help the refugees to the best of his ability.

Neumann accepted a position at the Institute for Advanced Study 1933. Once settled in the United States, the government recruited him to work on military defense projects for the war effort. [6] His work included research on shock and detonation waves, and problems of supersonic and turbulent flows of fluid. [7] He also contributed to the Manhattan Project. His war service efforts earned him the Presidential Medal for Merit and the Distinguished Civilian Service in 1947. 

Besides military projects, von Neumann made advances in other fields of mathematics. One of his most significant contributions involved the creation of the computer. He “formulated a theory of coding and programming for machines ... and [used] the computer for solving complex problems in mathematics and physics.” [6] Subsequently, in 1946, von Neumann and others helped build the IAS computer. “The Electronic Computer Project of the Institute for Advanced Study was undoubtedly the single most influential undertaking in the history of the computer during that period.” [7] His innovation not only succeeded in being ahead of its time, but it also left a remarkable significance for future work in computer engineering. His logic “served as the basis for subsequent stored-program computers [and]... he laid down the basic schema of the modern computer.” [8] The project created cutting-edge innovations that propelled the IAS to one of the leading institutions in computer and mathematics research. 

Chancellor of New York University, Harry Woodburn Chase, assigned Courant to oversee the establishment of the new graduate program in mathematics. Courant’s vision for the new institution emphasized “a combination of advanced level training and research, fellowships for fulltime study for selected advanced students, and reduced undergraduate teaching loads for faculty.” [12] With significant effort, the new institution opened in 1935.

Courant is also known for his work with the advancement of mathematics. Courant disagreed with the teaching methods used by high school instructors, and he “wanted to cooperate with the school of education [at New York University] to develop courses intended for training high school teachers.” [12] In an interview, Courant observed that “unless the teacher of mathematics is competent, inspired and able to transmit some inspiration, the student is at a loss.” [13] Thus, Courant started his endeavor to teach mathematics to the general public. Courant, in collaboration with Herbert Robbins, published the popular work, What is Mathematics? Its topics range over a variety of different mathematical courses one would take at the undergraduate level. 

Born in Shanghai, China, Tsung Dao Lee never earned a bachelor's degree but made his way to the University of Chicago with a teacher recommendation letter and a Chinese government scholarship. In Chicago, Lee earned studied and the advisorship of the distinguished physicist Enrico Fermi, one of America's strongest physicists. He graduated with his doctoral degree in 1950.

Born in Hefei, China, Yang studied at Tsinghua University, where his father worked as mathematics professor and where he earned his masters in 1944. He worked as teacher in China for a while before he left to attend the University of Chicago on a fellowship in 1946. He earned his doctorate in 1948, under Edward Teller, the father of the hydrogen bomb. 

Following graduation, he stayed at Chicago as an assistant of Enrico Fermi for one year. Together they collaborated to write “Are Mesons Elementary Particles?,” and although not a complete success, “this early incomplete attempt has left a trace in particle physics, and its fundamental ideas echo in later work.” [16] Their ideas paved the path for later discoveries.

They earned recognition in the United States as Chinese American physicists. As Nobel Laureate prize winners their names appeared in the subsection called “Scientists in the News” published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Lee and Yang made up two of the fourteen “honorary degree recipients” on the noted publication and a total of three Chinese Americans in this category. [17] As some of the first Chinese Americans making American headlines, they successfully secured their place as physicists and mathematicians. 

Dr. Yang left the Institute for Advanced Study to accept the Albert Einstein Professor of Physics position at the State University of New York at Stony Brook (SUNY). There, he oversaw the establishment of the Department of Theoretical Physics. Today the department holds his name: C. N. Yang Institute for Theoretical Physics.

Tsung Dao Lee continued to earn recognition for his accomplishments as well. At the age of 29, he was and still is the youngest professor at Columbia University to earn a full professor position. At the age of 31, he was the second youngest scientist to earn a Nobel Prize. His accomplishments continue to inspire new generations of scholars to follow in his footsteps.

Foreign scientists refreshed American mathematics. Not only did they bring new ideas and lead the way in innovating research, they also proved the importance of friendship and collaboration in science. Some of the most influential work by these scientists resulted from their collaboration with others.

Weyl and Noether, Einstein and Gödel, and Yang and Lee all represent the importance of heritage and common roots. Respectively, each pair had come from a similar background. Whether they had been pressured by circumstances or had willingly come to America, their journey to the United States impacted the rest of their life. Despite their journeys away from home, each one found a friend in a new country, and each friendship led to great discoveries. They show how important heritage can be when choosing companions.

Yang and Fermi symbolize the value in international collaboration. Despite the differences in their backgrounds, the duo worked together effortlessly. In particular, Yang found his inner talent through his mentor. The relationship underscores the fruitful outcomes of collaboration in academia and the importance of international friendships. 

The multinational scholars proved that diversity can not only improve work, but can also create strong interpersonal relationships. Gödel, Einstein, Yang, and Fermi are just a few that embody the significance of international collaboration. During the twentieth century, the United States transformed into a multinational synergetic research platform. In the twenty-first century, America upholds the tradition by providing extraordinary opportunities and education. The United States creates a collaborative environment conducive to prolific work between scholars from many nations. 

The sciences are a dynamic field of research that never ceases to thrill and challenge young minds. It is even more exciting when someone is there with you for the journey. 

[1] Translation provided by Ivan Pejic, University of Richmond German major and tutor.

[2] Batterson, Steve. “The Vision, Insight, and Influence of Oswald Veblen.” Notices of the AMS 54 no. 5 (2007):606-618.  https://www.ams.org/notices/200705/fea-batterson-web.pdf  

[3] “Hermann Weyl: Work” Institute for Advanced Study (2018).  https://www.ias.edu/hermann-weyl-work 

[4] Newman, M. H. A. "Hermann Weyl. 1885-1955." Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 3 (1957): 305-28. http://www.jstor.org/stable/769368.

[5] Siegmund-Schultze, Reinhard. Mathematicians Fleeing from Nazi Germany: Individual Fates and Global Impact. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.

[6] Leong, Y. K. “Notes on Mathematicians John von Neumann (1903-1957)” Singapore Mathematical Society 03, no. 03 (1975): 90-106.

[7] Kovács, Gy. "John Von Neumann – A Biographical Sketch." Acta Oeconomica 54, no. 1 (2004): 85-89. http://www.jstor.org/stable/90002529.

[8] “Electronic Computer Project” Institute for Advanced Study (2018).  https://www.ias.edu/electronic-computer-project 

[9] Arntzenius, Linda. Institute for Advanced Study: An Introduction. Institute for Advanced Study (2013): 3-48.

[10] Kilmister, Clive, and John W. Dawson. The Mathematical Gazette 90, no. 519 (2006): 568-570 http://www.jstor.org/stable/40378250.

[11] U.S. News and World Report. “Mathematics”U.S. News and World Report. (2018).  https://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-science-schools/mathematics-rankings   

[12] Shields, Brittany Anne. "A Mathematical Life: Richard Courant, New York University and Scientific Diplomacy in Twentieth Century America." Order No. 3709551, University of Pennsylvania, 2015. http://newman.richmond.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1699101968?accountid=14731.

[13] Courant, Richard. "Mathematics: Its Uses and Rewards." Challenge 8, no. 7 (1960): 29-37. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40718169. 

[14] Lax, Peter D. “Richard Courant.” Biographical Memoirs: Volume 82 (2003): 78-97. Doi: 10.17226/10683.

[15] Duren, W. L. "Graduate Student at Chicago in the Twenties." The American Mathematical Monthly 83, no. 4 (1976): 243-48. doi:10.2307/2318211.

[16] Segrè, Emilio. Enrico Fermi Physicist. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1970.

[17] "Scientists in the News." Science 128, no. 3317 (1958): 192-93. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1754687.

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