Exploring Southeast Asia:

The World's Most Fragmented Region

Comprised of 11 mainland and island nations, Southeast Asia takes up about 1.8 million square miles of some of Asia's most culturally and geographically rich and diverse landscape. From the western boarder of Myanmar, to the politically disputed island of Indonesia's Papua, New Guinea, the region spans a total width of 73,000 kilometers.

Physical Geography

Southeast Asia is by far the most geographically fragmented region on Earth. Due to this fragmentation, the region is often split into two parts. Those connected directly to the Eurasian continent, including Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia, are referred to as the region's Mainland nations. The southern island nations, including Malaysia, the Philippines, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, and Timor-Leste, make up the Insular region.

Mainland

Mt. Pauna; the third highest peak in the Naga Hills ( Source )

Mainland Southeast Asia's physical geography is mostly comprised of north-south trending mountain ranges. Many of these mountain ranges, such as the Pātkai Range and Naga Hills, are separated by vast, wide stretches of river valleys.

The formation of these many mountain ranges is due to the high geological activity within the region. Southeast Asia's position along the intersection of the Australian, Eurasian, Philippine, and Pacific plates has lead to intense folding of the landscape. Many of the resulting mountains in the region are of modest altitude, often between 3,000' and 5,000'. However, a few of these landforms peak at over 3 miles in altitude.

Located within the Sudirman Range of Indonesia, the Puncak Jaya peak of Mt. Jayawijaya reaches an altitude of 16,024' ( Source )

Fisherman working on the Irrawaddy river within Myanmar ( Source )

The rivers forming the vast valleys between these mountain ranges have been pivotal factors in the development of Southeast Asia. The four largest of the region, the Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong, and Red rivers, served as the most important means of transportation before the advent and wide acceptance of motor vehicles. In the Mainland region, rivers valleys currently serve as prime real-estate for agriculture, mostly comprised of rice and fish.

Insular

While Mainland Southeast Asia is largely made up of peninsulas, the Insular region exists as a complex system of over 17,000 islands. The two largest of these islands are Sumatra and Borneo, both of which belong mostly to Indonesia and partially to Malaysia and the small nation of Brunei. Costal plains with wide, waterlogged forests make up the majority of eastern Borneo and Sumatra.

Incredible Krakatoa volcano eruptions at night | anak krakatau 2018

The eastern ridge of islands in the Insular region make up a segment of the geologically active "Ring of Fire." The "Ring of Fire" takes up large portions of islands ranging from the Philippines to New Guinea. As a result of plate convergence and divergence, deep trenches and active volcanoes litter the ocean of the region.

One of the most violent and active volcanoes on the planet, Krakatoa, sits between the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java. In 1883, Krakatoa erupted with enough power to throw climate altering pyroclastic ash 50 miles away from the site (Johnson et al.). The eruption also cause a tsunami that resulted in the deaths of 36,000 people located within the costal lowlands (Johnson et al.). Krakatoa is currently one of over 750 potentially active volcanoes comprising the islands of Insular Southeast Asia (Whelley et al.).

Aftermath of Dec. 26 tsunami (Photographer’s Mate 1st Class Jon Gesch, USN)

In conjunction with a plentiful population of volcanoes, due to the complex plate tectonic movement of the region, many of the islands remain in constant threats of earthquakes and tsunamis. On of the regions strongest tsunamis occurred just recently in 2004. On December 26, an intense magnitude 9 earthquake in the Indian Ocean resulted in a massive uplifting of water. Reaching up to 33 feet in height, the tsunami ravaged Sumatra and the surrounding islands, killing over 228,000 people in 13 countries (Johnson et al.).

Climate

The majority of Southeaster Asia exists within the low-pressure region of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Ranging from about 30°N to 15°S, the landscape is largely comprised of fairly dense forests. These forests rely on annual monsoon patterns for healthy survival. In the Mainland area, the wet monsoon season usually lasts from June to September. Although the remaining eight months are considered the "dry" season, this particular region often continues to get sparse instances of rainfall. However, the "dry" season rainfall on Mainland nothing compared to that of the Insular region.

Indonesian Rainforest (Photo: David Gilbert)

While the Mainland climate has fairly identifiable wet and dry monsoon regions, the Insular region often receives a fairly steady annual rainfall. The abundance of rain in what would normally be the area's dry season is due to winds that pick up water vapor from the South China Sea an carry it east, where it condenses over the tropical islands.

Along with monsoon weather patters, with its position on the equatorial waters, the Insular Southeast Asia is heavily susceptible to typhoons. Typhoons occur most often during the wet monsoon season, where the ITCZ moves over the area. Every year, the region sees upwards of 20 typhoons, 5 of which usually cause notable damage (ADRC). In 2013, Insular Southeast Asia experienced one of the deadliest typhoons of its recorded history. On November 8, the storm made landfall, ravaging the area and causing death tolls to surpass 76,000, with an additional 71,800 missing (Reid).

Survivors of the November 8th hurricane in Tacloban, Philippines seeking shelter and supplies to rebuild after the disaster leveled their community (Photo: Mai Zamora)

Human Geography

Pre-Colonial Southeast Asia

Before any Western colonial influence, Mainland tribes had an economy largely structured around agriculture of rice, while the Insular economy centered around the exchange of forest products and materials. These economic structures first sprung up as Buddhist and Hindu organizations from India moved into the region.

Complex irrigation grid comprising the Khmer capitol city of Angkor ( Source )

The largest of these groups was the Khmer Empire. The Khmer controlled much of the Mainland region between the 9th and 15th centuries (Johnson et al.). Once covering modern day Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, today, the empire is remembered largely for its distinctively advanced agricultural techniques. In the existing ruins of the Khmer Empire, complex irrigated rice paddies make up much of the flat land.

The Insular region has a bit more fragmented and complex past. The region once consisted of many small kingdoms, the three most prominent cores being the Srivijaya, Majapahit, and the Islam-based kingdoms.

The Srivijaya were a largely Indianized/ Buddhist group that held power between the 7th and 14th centuries in modern day Sumatra. The kingdom thrived heavily off of long-distance trade of its plentiful forest resources.

The Majapahit were an Indianized/ Hindu-Buddhist group that help power over the central and eastern areas of the Java island between the 13th and 15th centuries. The Majapahit thrived off of a balance of trade and agriculture.

In conjunction with the Srivijaya and Majapahit rule, Islam-based groups dotted much of the remaining area of Insular Southeast Asia. These groups are most notable for their introduction of Sultanate government ideals, as well as high desires for luxury trade of spices, exotic wood, and gold. Due to these heavily export-based ideals, the Islam-based groups were able to turn the Insular region into the most productive group of ports in the world.

Western Colonialism

Western colonization of Southeast Asia is often broken into two different time periods; the Mercantile (1500-1800), and the Industrial (1800-1945) (Johnson et al.)..

European colonial power throughout Southeast Asia ( Source )

Mercantile colonialism within Southeast Asia persisted from 1500 to 1800 (Johnson et al.). It was initiated by private Wester trading companies who wanted to engage in trade and commerce with Southeastern Asian elites for luxury goods. The two groups most involved in the initial trade were the Dutch East India and British East India companies (Johnson et al.). In the late 1500s, Spanish and Portuguese forces infiltrator and gained control over the areas of Timor-Leste and the Philippines (Johnson et al.).

Industrial colonialism reigned supreme from the early 1800s to the end of WWII in 1945. During this period, direct Western political control was brought over much of the region. The power of the economy began to shift largely into the hands of the Western private and corporate organizations and ideals. By the late 1800s, the British and Dutch had complete control of their large island territories, and the French gained control over modern day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.

Decolinization

The fall of Western colonial rule came with Japan's conquering of Most of Southeast Asia during WWII. However, once the war ended, so did Japan's dictator rule, allowing for the West to regain control. It would then take almost forty years for the nations under Western control to all declare independence, with Brunei being the last to become independent in 1983 (Johnson et al.).

World Population Data Sheet 2012 (The World Bank, http://www.data.worldbank.org.)

During the gradual strive for independence among Southeast Asian nations, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations was formed. Established in 1967, the organization aimed to promote regional political stability. Those who joined the organization, including Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines, became among the first in the region to globalize their economies and consider strengthening their economies through exportation and mass manufacturing. Known commonly as the "modernizers" of the region, ASEAN countries are now among the wealthiest in the region.

Southeast Asia Today

Today, Southeast Asia is comprised of 11 independent nations within the Mainland and Insular sections of the region.

Insular Region

Singapore

(Fullerton Bay Hotel)

Singapore, a city state, is Asia's smallest country, spanning an area of only 272 sq. mi. with a population of ~5.3 million, most of which is ethnically Chinese. The country functions as an important maritime trade center, as it is home to one of the world's busiest ports (Johnson et al.). Singapore is also the 3rd largest oil refiner on the planet. It's bustling trade centers and oil refining plants are the largest contributors to the wealth of the country. The GDP per capita in Singapore is higher than any other Asian country at $59,790 (worldbank.org). Singapore's government is also among the most stable in the region, remaining nearly corruption free since joining ASEAN.

Malaysia

Arial view of Penang, aka "Silicon Island" ( Source )

With an area of 127,316 sq. mi. and a population of ~29 million, the majority of which is ethnically Malay, Malaysia has seen great industrialization and economic growth in the past five decades (Johnson et al.). The majority of the nation's economic success currently springs from advancing production of valuable electronic components, such as semiconductors and silicon wafers (Johnson et al.). The majority of electronic production takes place on an area dubbed "Silicon Island," where the largest production plants exist. In recent years, these plants have attracted the work of female Indonesian migrant workers, who now make up the majority of the electronics workforce within the country.

Indonesia

With an area of 741,100 sq. mi. and a population of over 214 million, Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia in terms of area and population, as well as the 4th most populous country in the world (Johnson et al.). Although the land area is large, physical fragmentation brings challenges for equal economical and political development and opportunity. While the majority of Indonesia's large population is Javanese Muslim, groups of Protestants, Roman Catholics, animist groups, and Chinese Buddhists all coexist (Johnson et al.). The nation depended largely on oil and petrol exportation in the 1960s for its economical stability. However, a worldwide global depression of petrol prices in the 1980s forced much of the nation to look towards new means of production and exportation, mainly switching to cheaper textiles such as clothing and footwear (Johnson et al.). In the past five decades, this boom in textile manufacturing has made the nation especially economically attractive to multinational trade corporations. However, even with this boom in the textile manufacturing business, GDP per capita remains fairly low, floating around $4,160 (WorldBank.org).

Philippines

Coron Island (Photo: Anthony Coronado)

The Philippines boasts an area of 115,831 sq. mi. and a population of ~106 million (Johnson et al.). The Philippines is the most fragmented nation in the world, composed of over 7,000 individual islands. Among the islands' inhabitants, 81% are Catholic or another Christian denomination, 11% are Muslim, and the remaining 4% do not affiliate with any religion (Johnson et al.). The main reason for the large Catholic population ties back to Spanish colonization of the area. This heavy Spanish influence, along with American influence, has made it difficult for the Philippines to construct a strong national identity (Johnson et al.). In addition to the lack of national identity, 29% of the population lives below the poverty line due to high population growth rates in recent decades (Johnson et al.).

Thailand

Nigh view of Thailand's capital city of Bangkok ( Source )

With an area of 198,117 sq. mi. and a population of ~69 million, Thailand is the only nation in Southeast Asia that has not been under Western colonial power (Johnson et al.). It is also the only Mainland nation that has joined the ASEAN. This has aided heavily in its economic success, with a current GDP per capita of $8,390 (Johnson et al.). Thailand's economy relies heavily on exportation of manufactured goods, much of which is centered around automobile manufacturing. Currently, Thailand is the planet's 14th largest producer of automobile parts (Johnson et al.). Currently, the majority of the manufacturing industry resides within the capitol city of Bangkok. However, the government is working to disperse manufacturing throughout the country in order to influence even national economic growth. However, due to the convenience of suppliers and ports in Bangkok, many industries are hesitant to disperse.

Vietnam

Vietnam's capital city of Hanoi ( Source )

Vietnam has an area of 127,882 sq. mi. and a population of 95 million, the majority of which is of Chinese descent (Johnson et al.). The nation served as a hotbed for political unrest from the 1940s, when Japan gained its control over France, to 1975, when the US withdrew from combat and the nation declared independence. Although the nation was now self-governed, because the government centered around strict Marxist ordeals, the nation continued to decline, becoming one of the world's poorest by the late 1980s (Johnson et al.). Eventually, the country's leader introduced a concept known as doi moi, which was to serve as a form of economical renovation through a loosening of the nation's Marxist ties. Although Vietnam now remains among the wealthier of the reformer countries, it continues to boast high unemployment rates upwards of 18% (Johnson et al.).

Cambodia

Hindu temple complex of Angkor Wat, which is featured on the Cambodian flag ( Source )

Cambodia has an area of 69,898 sq. mi. and a population of just over 16 million, most of which is ethnically Khmer (Johnson et al.). The nation is notable for its widespread practice of Buddhism, which makes up 93% of the population, while the remaining 7% are mostly Muslim and Christian (Johnson et al.). Cambodia fell into great political disarray following its declaration of independence at the end of WWII. This is partially due to the war in Vietnam, which spilled into eastern Cambodia with the U.S. fear of the North Vietnamize utilizing the area as a work around route into southern Vietnam. In the 1990s, Cambodia became one of the world's largest receivers of international aid, as nongovernmental organizations flooded the area with development projects to promote better health and education (Johnson et al.). However, although international efforts were plentiful, Cambodia remains among the poorest nations in Southeast Asia, with a GDP per capita of $2,200 (Johnson et al.). This is mostly due to the largely undereducated grown population, as well as extremely low governmental expenditure on current education.

Myanmar

Myanmar's capital city of Naypyitaw

Myanmar has an area of 261,227 sq. mi. and a population of ~16 million. Much like Cambodia, Myanmar has a large Buddhist population (Johnson et al.). In this case, Buddhism makes up 88% of the country's population, while Christians and Muslims make up the majority of the remaining population (Johnson et al.). Myanmar has been notably resistant to globalization. Since gaining independence in 1948, the nations economy has slowly crumbled due to ideals of authoritarianism and isolationism. While the land is rich in gems, gold, tin, petrol, and fertile soil, the nation's reluctance to participate in international commerce has limited the economy's potential for growth (Johnson et al.). In addition to a reluctance to export goods, Myanmar frequently refuses offers of international funding and aid. This financial resistance was especially damaging in the case of the 2008 Typhoon Nargis, which resulted in over 138,000 deaths throughout the nation (IFRC). While a new constitution written in 2008 aimed to promote political reform, it did not effect the power of the military, who hold the power over international affairs and commerce. Coupled with widespread lawlessness along the nation's boarders, where some of the largest opium trade and production rings exist, the current state of Myanmar is continuing to degrade, with little drive for political and economical reform.

Works Cited

Brown, Tyson. “Puncak Jaya.” National Geographic Society, 9 Sept. 2019, www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/puncak-jaya/.

“Information on Disaster Risk Reduction of the Member Countries.” Asian Disaster Reduction Center(ADRC), www.adrc.asia/nationinformation.php?NationCode=608.

Johnson, Douglas L, and Merrill L Johnson. “11 South East Asia.” World Regional Geography: A Developmental Approach, edited by Viola Haarmann, 11th ed., vol. 1, Pearson, 2015, pp. 502–537.

“Myanmar: Cyclone Nargis 2008 Facts and Figures.” IFRC, 3 May 2011, 12:16 CET, www.ifrc.org/en/news-and-media/news-stories/asia-pacific/myanmar/myanmar-cyclone-nargis-2008-facts-and-figures/.

“Overview.” World Bank, www.worldbank.org/en/country/singapore/overview.

Reid, Kathryn. “2013 Typhoon Haiyan: Facts, FAQs, and How to Help.” World Vision, 5 June 2020, www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/2013-typhoon-haiyan-facts.

Whelley, Patrick L., et al. “The Frequency of Explosive Volcanic Eruptions in Southeast Asia.” Bulletin of Volcanology, vol. 77, no. 1, 2015, doi:10.1007/s00445-014-0893-8.

Şengör, Celâl. “Asia.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 16 Nov. 2020, www.britannica.com/place/Asia. 

Mt. Pauna; the third highest peak in the Naga Hills ( Source )

Located within the Sudirman Range of Indonesia, the Puncak Jaya peak of Mt. Jayawijaya reaches an altitude of 16,024' ( Source )

Fisherman working on the Irrawaddy river within Myanmar ( Source )

Aftermath of Dec. 26 tsunami (Photographer’s Mate 1st Class Jon Gesch, USN)

Indonesian Rainforest (Photo: David Gilbert)

Survivors of the November 8th hurricane in Tacloban, Philippines seeking shelter and supplies to rebuild after the disaster leveled their community (Photo: Mai Zamora)

Complex irrigation grid comprising the Khmer capitol city of Angkor ( Source )

European colonial power throughout Southeast Asia ( Source )

World Population Data Sheet 2012 (The World Bank, http://www.data.worldbank.org.)

(Fullerton Bay Hotel)

Arial view of Penang, aka "Silicon Island" ( Source )

Coron Island (Photo: Anthony Coronado)

Nigh view of Thailand's capital city of Bangkok ( Source )

Vietnam's capital city of Hanoi ( Source )

Hindu temple complex of Angkor Wat, which is featured on the Cambodian flag ( Source )

Myanmar's capital city of Naypyitaw