Lithium

The element that powers the world

Kim Naas & Anna Schwander

April 21, 2023

Introduction: what is lithium?

Lithium, lithos in Greek, meaning stone, is a very demanded metal all across the globe. The demand for lithium has grown drastically in the last few decades. The reason for that is because lithium can be used for various things like drugs, heat resistant glass and ceramics, rechargeable batteries and so on.

Lithium was first found in 1817 by Johan August Arfvedson, a Swedish chemist. Since lithium is a chemical element, it has the Symbol Li and the ordinal number 3. It is the lightest metal on earth with the lowest density of all metals. Lithium belongs to the alkali metals and has a melting point of 180,5°C. A fun fact about lithium is that when it burns, it burns with a bright red, almost pink, color. Since lithium is an alkali metal, it reacts easily with other elements, meaning it tarnishes and oxidizes very rapidly in air and water, making it a very useful metal. ¹

Lithium is mostly mined from mines in South America, especially in brine mines. Batteries made out of lithium promise a clean technology to replace fossil fuel powered devices, which is why the demand for it has grown by a lot, so that lithium has become a significant industry in quite a few countries. However, lithium also has negative effects on the climate, due to CO₂ emissions, use of huge amounts of water in those already dry areas, and contaminating it. It also affects the local communities. Workers are often exposed to hazardous* working conditions, which has already led to high costs in local communities.

*dangerous, unsafe

How was lithium originally formed?

A NASA study found out that lithium came from bright stellar explosions called classical novae. A classical nova happens when a so-called dwarf (similar size of earth but has the mass of the sun) is orbited by a larger star. If gas falls from the larger star onto the dwarf, an explosion, also called nova in this context, happens. It is assumed that those explosions were the production of lithium. ²

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Where is lithium mostly extracted from?

The highest lithium concentrations are found in Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. This area is called „the lithium triangle“. Those countries hold more than 50% of the world’s supply beneath their salt flats. In Bolivia there is the Salar de Uyuni, which is the world’s largest salt flat that has massive lithium deposits, around 50% of the earth’s total. Bolivia, Argentinia and Chile are places on earth which are very dry. This complicates the process of lithium extraction, making it a very long process. ³

What about other countries?

Australia, China, Canada, the USA, Zimbabwe and Portugal are also massive lithium suppliers.

At Greenbushes, australian miners mined lithium for the first time in Australia. That was in the 80s. Later, Australia started extracting lithium for industrial usages. After the risks of climate change became known all over the world, the governments started to replace the 1.45 billion petrol cars worldwide with electric vehicles, with the help of the reserves at Greenbushes. Australia is the country that has the largest supplies of lithium on earth.

China mostly uses its lithium reserves for their own needs, especially for the creation of batteries.

Portugal doesn’t come that close to other countries with the yearly extraction of lithium (60‘000 tons) but is still the biggest supplier in Europe. ⁴

The states of Nevada, North Carolina, and California together host an estimated 4% of the world's lithium reserves. As the US President Joe Biden courts domestic lithium production for electric vehicle batteries, opposition by affected local communities grows against the impacts. There's a reason lithium has been given the nickname "white gold." While the white-colored mineral is geologically abundant, its production is limited. Lithium extraction can be an ecologically and culturally destructive process, and opposition by affected local communities to any type of mining appears to be growing in the US. ^4.1

Please note that there are many other countries that are also lithium suppliers

This diagram shows the countries on the world with the highest amounts of raw lithium.

This diagram shows the countries who process lithium into other chemical compounds the most.

Where and how does lithium usually show up?

In nature, lithium can also be found as lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃) and lithium chloride (LiCl), a stable compound that can be transformed into chemicals or salts. If lithium makes a chemical reaction with a non-metal, it forms into a salt. Those salts can be found in underground deposits of clay, mineral ore, and brine pools, as well as in geothermal water and seawater. However, most of the world’s lithium comes from mines and gets extracted from there. The lithium brine recovery is a straightforward but a very time-consuming process. ⁵

The image shows piles of salt at the Uyuni salt flat in Bolivia.

Brine pools

Brine pools are also a very good example for locations with high amounts of lithium. They have the highest concentration of lithium on earth (1000-3000 parts per million). A brine pool can also be called an underwater lake, deepwater or brine lake. It is basically a vessel of brine collected in a seafloor depression. ⁶

The picture shows one of the brine lakes in Chile.

How is lithium extracted and processed?

The lithium that is obtained by miners is recovered in the form of lithium carbonate. It is the main raw material used by companies in, as an example, lithium-ion batteries.

The mining of lithium in brine mines is a very long process that can take up to three years. Thankfully, it’s a cheap and effective extraction method. The workers have to drill a hole and then pump brine into the surface. The mines then must evaporate for multiple months, by creating a mixture of manganese, potassium, borax and salts. This mixture is then put into another evaporation pool. After 12-18 months the mixture should be completely filtered. The workers can then extract the lithium carbonate, also called the „white gold“.

Lithium is called the white gold, because it is a very wanted and a demanded mineral all over the world, especially in the global energy market. Reason for that is because of its silver color and its very high usability, since it does not rust, tarnish, or corrode. White gold can also be easily worked into fine designs and is slightly less expensive than other elements such as platinum. ⁷

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Chile

Let’s take a deeper look into Chile. With the world’s principal reserves and lowest cost of production, it is no surprise that Chile is a worldwide supplier in the lithium market. As the first diagram from above showed, Chile is the country which has the second biggest amount of raw lithium supplies. The Atacama Desert in Chile are massive pools of Caribbean blue water that sit next to what appear to be snowdrifts. However, they are lithium mines. The pools are filled with salty groundwater which contains lithium. The Salars de Atacama, in Northern Chile is the largest producing brine deposit in the world. The brines in Chile have the highest known concentration of lithium in the world (≈0.14%). Locals think the pools are very beautiful, especially since they are filled with lithium, the element that powers the world. ⁸

Though the consequences of the environmental impact of lithium extraction are constantly growing, companies in Chile can profit insanely due to the big demand. Chile is the second-largest lithium producer after Australia and hold more than half of the world’s proven lithium reserves with Bolivia and Argentinia. At the Albemarle mine (see image on left) the production has increased from 22‘000 tons to 84‘000 tons a year ever since 2016, says Ignacio Mehech, the company’s country manager in Chile. Due to the demands of lithium all over the world, the company grows everyday. There are now 1‘000 employees in Mehech‘s company while there were only 250 five years ago.

However, there is an issue with the production of lithium in Chile, even though Chile is second on the list of lithium reserves in the local brines, there are only two companies that produce lithium in Chile. This does have an environmental reason: the lithium mines extract huge amounts of groundwater. Those brines are then placed into massive evaporation pools. After 18 months the lithium solution can be turned into lithium powder which is especially used in batteries. The Atacama Desert will become even hotter and drier than it already is due to this process. This will reduce the amount of wild life population in Chile. Even though Chile is profiting massively, the land has to pay a heavy price. ⁹

The image shows a worker at the Albemarle mines with the mountain in the background.

What is lithium used for?

Lithium is mostly used in electronic battery technologies, heat-resistant glass and ceramics, electric vehicles, steel, lubricants, metal alloys and so on. Let’s look at further usages of lithium and the reasons for its usability.

Since lithium is a very reactive element due to it readily losing its outermost electron, it is a perfect match for batteries since the current and electricity can flow through it easily. This makes the most important and most known use of lithium rechargeable batteries for mobile phones, laptops, digital cameras and electric vehicles. It is also used in some non-rechargeable batteries, like toys or clocks. Lithium is mostly used in electronic devices, because it can charge faster, it lasts longer and it has a long battery life in a light package. However, you should avoid touching lithium metal because it can cause reproductive damage. The batteries can also contain toxic material and a flammable electrolyte fluid, making lithium toxic. Nevertheless, it is a perfect metal when it comes to heat and electricity conductivity. ¹⁰ ^10.1

Lithium metal (image on top) can be turned into alloys* with the help of magnesium and aluminium. This makes lithium stonger and lighter. A „magnesium-lithium alloy“ is used for armour plating, aircraft, bicycle frames and high-speed trains.

Lithium carbonate (image on bottom) is used as drugs to treat manic depression, though its effects are still not fully understood. The drug treats mental illnesses such as bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and some types of depression since the drug works as a mood stabilizer. The crucial thing about lithium as a medicine is, that the dose has to be adjusted to suit the patient by taking blood tests and by making sure the patient gets the right amount in their system. The dose depends on age, general health and other medicine the patient takes. Scientists assume that it releases chemicals such as dopamine or serotonin in your brain. This helps people to have more control over their emotions and cope with their mood swings. Thankfully, lithium isn’t addictive. ¹¹

*An alloy is a metal made by combining two or more metallic elements, especially to give greater strength or resistance to corrosion. Lithium can be alloyed with aluminum, copper and other alloys to improve their mechanical and chemical properties.

Lithium oxide is used in glasses and glass ceramics. The lithium compounds are used in glass and ceramics because they can improve the durability and heat resistance of these materials.

Lithium chloride is used in air conditioning and industrial drying systems. There are even more lithium types for different usages, however, those were the most known and most used ones. ¹²

The image shows blue pottery from Okinawa.

What is lithium’s economic relevance?

Lithium-ion batteries are helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Lithium has many economic relevance’s, however one of the most known one would be the Li-ion batteries. To stop the climate change and create a fossil fuel-free* economy, the global community has agreed that GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions must be reduced at all costs. Li-ion batteries are a promising and clean technology to replace the fossil-fuel powered device. Since batteries are part of the reason why so many GHG emissions get released into the atmosphere (due to electricity generation and transportation), why not start making and using non-harming batteries?

The Li-ion batteries aren’t expensive and are enabling grids to install more renewable energy capacity by using solar and wind sources since sun and wind sources can create masses of energy and power. ¹³

*Fuel-fossil is a generic term for non-renewable energy sources, like coal, natrual gas, crude oil etc.

When it comes to transportation, batteries, including the Li-ion batteries, are starting a revolution in electric vehicles of all types. The demand for Li-ion batteries has grown from 19 gigawatt hours in 2010 to 286 gigawatt hours in 2019. It is said that this number will increase to 2‘000 gigawatt hours in 2030, which is approximately 8% of the world ‘s energy (see diagram)! ¹⁴

Lithium powers the modern world

Batteries in general are the core for nearly 90% of all activity in electricity storage. The rechargeable Li-ion batteries are considered to be the next generation used for many electronic devices, and will be able to minimize global warming by barely releasing any GHG emissions in the near future.

Lithium creates working places

Lithium has become a significant industry in countries like Chile, Australia, Bolivia, Argentinia etc. The mining and production of lithium creates jobs and revenue for these countries. The medical industry also depends on lithium, which contributes to its economic relevance. ¹⁵

Challenges of lithium

As mentioned earlier, lithium is mainly being used in two completely different fields: medicine and rechargeable batteries. Products containing lithium, are highly requested and produced in large amounts. For that lithium must be excessively mined and processed, but what environmental, socioeconomic, and political challenges come with it? And though the process of lithium extraction isn’t expensive and very effective at the same time, a question pops up:

Will lithium benefit the globe and its inhabitants, or will it harm the environment and the humans?

Environmental and social challenges of lithium

The mining of lithium has been hailed as the solution to the global shift towards clean energy, as it is used in the production of lithium-ion batteries that power electric cars and store energy from renewable sources. However, the extraction of lithium has serious environmental consequences, particularly when it comes to groundwater depletion.

Lithium is usually found in brine deposits beneath salt flats or in hard rock deposits. In the case of brine deposits, large amounts of water (63 billion liters per year) are required to extract the lithium, leading to the decline of groundwater resources in some areas. The process also releases harmful chemicals into the surrounding environment, such as magnesium, potassium, and boron.

In hard rock mining, the process of extracting lithium can involve the use of toxic chemicals, including sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid. These chemicals can corrupt nearby water sources, leading to the destruction of aquatic ecosystems and the health risks to humans and wildlife that rely on them. ¹⁶

The mining of lithium requires huge amounts of water, which is used in the extraction process and to control dust on the roads leading to the mines. The problem is that many of the world's largest lithium deposits are located in dry regions where water is already scarce, such as the Atacama Desert in Chile, the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, and the Salinas Grandes in Argentina. The extraction of lithium from these regions has already caused significant damage to the environment. In the Atacama Desert, for example, the mining of lithium has led to the drying up of lagoons and the disappearance of local flora and fauna*. The extraction process can also result in the contamination of groundwater with toxic chemicals such as chlorine, which is used to process the lithium. ¹⁷

*The flora and fauna of a place are its plants and animals.

Dried up lagoon in the Atacama Desert, "Bridge With No Water"

Lithium mining, particularly in South America, has been linked to ground destabilization, which is a serious threat to the environment and local communities. The extraction of lithium involves the drilling of boreholes to reach underground brine reservoirs, which contain the mineral. This process can cause significant damage to the ground, particularly in areas with fragile ecosystems, such as salt flats and wetlands. The pumping of brine from the reservoirs can also lead to land subsidence, which can cause sinkholes and cracks in the ground. ¹⁸

The process of mining and extracting lithium also has a significant contribute to global warming, even though we know lithium as an element which is supposed to help cure the world from global warming. The production and transportation of lithium, however, still harms the environment:

According to research from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, mining and refining lithium can produce up to 90 kg of CO₂ for every kilogram of lithium produced. This is due to the energy-intensive nature of the process, which involves using large amounts of water, as well as heating, cooling, and chemical treatments to separate the lithium from other minerals and impurities. The transportation of lithium from mining sites to manufacturing facilities and ultimately to the consumers can also result in significant greenhouse gas emissions, particularly if the transportation is done using fossil fuel-powered vehicles. ¹⁹

The mining of lithium produces dust pollution

Another challenge of lithium mining is the impact on local communities. In some cases, lithium mining can lead to the displacement of indigenous communities and the destruction of sacred lands. Additionally, the extraction process can produce noise and dust pollution, leading to respiratory issues (such as asthma, pneumonia and lung cancer) for nearby residents.

The mining of lithium can also have negative consequences for workers in the industry. In some countries, such as Bolivia and Chile, workers in lithium mines are often exposed to hazardous working conditions, including exposure to toxic chemicals and the risk of accidents. As said before, Chile one of the world's largest producer of lithium. The Atacama Desert, located in northern Chile, is a home to some of the largest lithium reserves in the world. The mining of this resource has come at a high cost to the local communities.

Because the extraction of lithium requires a large amount of water, local rivers and the contamination of groundwater sources have started to dry up. This has had a significant impact on the life of the indigenous people, who rely on these resources for farming and fishing. ²⁰

In addition to the environmental impacts, the lithium mining industry has also been accused of exploiting the local workforce, paying low wages, and subjecting workers to poor working conditions. This has led to protests and calls for better working conditions and greater compensation for the local communities. The Chilean government has carried out regulations to address the environmental and social impacts of mining, but more needs to be done to ensure that the benefits of lithium production are shared fairly with the local communities. ²¹

Poor working conditions in Congo: workers, including children, dig for cobalt, an ingredient in lithium-ion batteries

Lithium is a naturally occurring element that can be toxic in certain circumstances. In medical settings, for example, lithium can be used as a medication for bipolar disorder and other mental health conditions. However, when taken in excessive amounts or when not properly monitored, it can be toxic and cause a range of symptoms including tremors, confusion, seizures, and even coma. This is why it is very important to keep in touch with a doctor when using medicine which contains lithium. The doctor will arrange the needed dosis for the patient so that the medicine won’t harm them. In industrial and mining settings, exposure to lithium dust and fumes can also be toxic and cause respiratory issues.

Overall, while lithium can be toxic in certain circumstances, it is generally safe when used in appropriate ways and in appropriate quantities.

Political challenges of lithium

There are several political challenges associated with lithium production and supply. One of the main challenges is the concentration of lithium reserves in a small number of countries. The political instability and lack of infrastructure in some of these countries can make it difficult to extract and transport lithium. In Bolivia, for example, the government nationalized its lithium industry in 2018, leading to tensions with foreign investors and uncertainty about the country's future lithium production.

Another political challenge is the potential for competition and conflict between countries over access to lithium reserves. Countries that do not have significant reserves may feel pressure to secure access to lithium resources. This could lead to geopolitical tensions and even conflict, as countries compete for control of this valuable resource. The environmental concerns regarding lithium mining have led some countries to impose regulations and restrictions on lithium production, further complicating the global supply chain. ²²

As the demand for lithium continues to grow, it is crucial to find more sustainable and responsible ways of mining and extracting this critical mineral.

How can we mitigate those challenges?

In order to overcome the challenges of lithium mining and reduce its impact on the environment, we have to consider a variety of strategies. As a normal human being we can’t do much but protest against the big companies that profit of the mining and production of lithium and demand them to improve sustainability, reduce the amount of energy and water used in the extraction process, and to minimizing the amount of waste generated. The latter also depends heavily on us as consumers to reduce our consume of products containing lithium drastically. ²³