The Story of Deforestation in Sri Lanka
This project will examine the causes of deforestation as well as its implications on Sri Lanka's society and environment.
Introduction
Lush, verdant forests teeming with life once covered over 70% of the tropical island nation of Sri Lanka (Zoellner 2016). The majority of them were montane forests, tropical rainforests, and mangroves, each of which offer essential ecosystem services such as soil retention and air and water purification (Mattsson et al. 2012). In addition, forests provide humans with food, fuel, and flood control. However, these benefits, many of which are essential to the future of humanity, are disappearing due to deforestation. Today, over half of Sri Lanka's original forests have disappeared, leaving just 29% of the island with forest cover (Zoellner 2016). So, what are the factors that contributed to such large-scale deforestation?
Timeline of Deforestation
Let's start at the beginning...
1815–1948
Large-scale deforestation started during the colonial occupation of Sri Lanka by the British and Dutch (Munasinghe et al. 2017). Dense forests were converted to essentially a blanket of tea plantations, and so emerged the Ceylon tea industry, which still remains a major factor in the nation’s economy.
1970s
Later, with Sri Lanka’s rapid urbanization and steady population growth that marked the 1970s, infrastructure projects ate away at forest areas. Construction of dams, road networks, and expansion of urban areas to meet the demand of a growing population led to the loss of hundreds of thousands of acres of forests (Sudhakar et al. 2017).
1983–2009
The Sri Lankan Civil War emerged out of ethnic tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil minority. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) outlawed tree cutting in the areas they captured, as trees provided foliage that allowed them to practice guerilla warfare (Zoellner 2016). In response, the opposition—the national government—clear cut forests in hopes of increasing visibility of LTTE combatants (Lindström et al. 2012). Large-scale clear-cutting for this particular reason continued for decades until the defeat of the LTTE in 2009, which marked the end of the war.
2010–Present
Encroachments for small-scale farming cause the majority (as much as 87%) of forest clearing in recent years in Sri Lanka (Mattsson et al. 2012). This occurs when farmers who live on the borders of forests clear land, usually for the purpose of subsistence farming.
Consequences
Mangroves are essential for flood prevention and storm absorption. Deforestation of mangroves intensifies post-disaster damages and mortality.
Of course, those actions didn't come without consequences. Altering Sri Lanka’s environment on such large scales has yielded catastrophic consequences that not only threaten environmental stability, but also human health and safety. Today, Sri Lanka continues to suffer from the aftermath of deforestation, as outlined below...
But perhaps the biggest environmental consequence was the...
Loss of Biodiversity
Sri Lanka is one of world's 34 biodiversity hotspots, as declared by Conservation International (Sudhakar et al. 2017). As an island, speciation typically engenders endemism, so many of these species are found only in Sri Lanka (Velmurugan 2008). With tropical rainforests hosting most of Sri Lanka’s endemic species, deforestation has endangered many plant and animal species (Vidyaratne 2015).
There are less than
500
wild sloth bears (Melursus ursinus inornatus) left in Sri Lanka (Ratnayeke et al. 2007). This threatened species is dependent on dry-zone forests, which are disappearing due to conversion to agriculture.
With under
8,000
individuals left in the world, Sri Lankan elephants are considered an endangered species (BBC 2020).
The endemic Sri Lankan leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya) has less than
800
individuals left in the wild (Dilmah Conservation, n.d.) This subspecies once had islandwide distribution but is now primarily restricted to national parks due to habitat loss.
The purple-faced langur (Semnopithecus vetulus) is another endangered endemic species. They live in lowland rainforests, and due to deforestation, their natural range is now just
3%
of what is was in 1980 (Starr 2018). They are forced to scavenge for food in human landscapes, increasing the chances of human-animal conflicts.
Visit Dilmah Conservation (a Sri Lanka-based conservation agency) to learn more about the country's endangered and threatened species:
All About Animals | Information About Animals in Sri Lanka | Dilmah Conservation
So, what did Sri Lanka do to manage this issue?
Sri Lanka's Action Plan
Recognizing the importance of forests in maintaining Sri Lanka's biodiversity, the national government devised the Forestry Sector Master Plan in 1995 (Lindström et al. 2012). This plan formally declared about half of the country's remaining forests as protected. Each forest was given 1 of 4 designations (National Heritage wilderness area, conservation forest, reserved forest, or village forest) which determines the level of human interference allowed in the forest (Forest Department of Sri Lanka, n.d.). Learn more about the designations in the following map tour:
National Heritage Wilderness Areas
Today, the only National Heritage wilderness area is the Sinharaja Tropical Rainforest. It is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This designation provides maximum legal protection.
Conservation Forests
Bundala is a conservation forest and popular ecotourist destination. With the sole purpose of biodiversity preservation, only research and guided visits are permitted in conservation forests.
Reserved Forests
Reserved forests are recognized for their soil and water resources, but non-extractive human activities are permitted. The Hurulu Reserved Forest is home to many Sri Lankan elephant herds.
Village Forests
This is a village forest outside of Knuckles Range, which is covered in montane forests. Village forests are locally managed to provide forest products to dependent surrounding communities.
Still, the FSMP wasn't enough. Despite this formal protection, deforestation continued to eat away at the country's already dwindling forests. What could Sri Lanka do to improve its forest management and safeguard forest ecosystem services?
The Future of Forest Management
Decentralizing forest management would aid in improving the efficacy of national legislation by ensuring that the laws are properly carried out. Sri Lankans who live on the borders of forests claim that the protected areas are poorly demarcated, therefore causing confusion about where their crop plots can end before crossing protected land (Lindström et al. 2012). Also, in the event that humans commit any illegal activity on protected land, there are often little or no consequences. Improving forest border markings and fortifying enforcement of laws via a patrol force would likely reduce illegal tree cutting in protected forests.
Agroforestry is a land use system that integrates trees and shrubs into crop lands (De Zoysa and Inoue 2014). While agroforestry does not inherently protect forests, it allows converted land to serve multiple purposes. Not only will crop cultivation benefit the farmer, but the planted trees will eventually offer some of the ecosystem services that forests do, such as shade, enhancement of carbon stocks, and animal habitat.
The unique biodiversity, ecosystems, and sceneries of forests leave Sri Lanka with immense ecotourism potential. While tourism is a major source of the country’s economy, tourism in protected forests remains an economic possibility that is largely untapped. Revenue from ecotourists could be directed to support conservation.
The use of flagship species has proven successful in finding means for financial support for conservation projects around the world. One potential flagship is the Sri Lankan leopard, which is found nowhere else in the world, and could therefore serve as a marketing tool to promote stricter forest conservation (Kittle and Fernando 2017). In addition to raising public awareness among Sri Lankans about the costs of deforestation, the leopards could also be used in brochures and other advertisements to promote ecotourism to an international audience.
Conclusion
Stemming from the colonial era, deforestation has wreaked havoc on Sri Lankan environment and society for centuries. The national government attempted to ameliorate the situation with the Forestry Sector Master Plan, but this has proven to be insufficient in reducing deforestation. In order to preserve what remains of the island's verdant forests, it is essential to explore solutions beyond policy, such as ecotourism and alternative agriculture.
The beautiful sceneries and species of Sri Lanka's forests
