Ancient Egyptian Civilization
A Crash Course
Learning Objectives
- Students will be able to identify the geographic region of the ancient Egyptian civilization on maps.
- Students will be able to briefly outline the history of ancient Egypt.
- Students will be able to recognize basic temporal and spatial terminologies in Egyptology, such as "Old kingdom" and "Thebes."
Where is the "Ancient Egyptian Civilization?"
Satellite map of the world
The ancient Egyptian civilization stretched along the Nile valley in northern Africa.
Geography: the Journey of the Nile
The Rwenzori Mountains
The ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy identified some snow-capped mountains in the heart of Africa as the source of Nile. These mountains have been widely regarded as the Rwenzori Mountains of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Image: The Rwenzori Mountains © open access
Lake Victoria
Despite of the efforts in searching for the source of the Nile in Uganda and Congo, the world's longest river officially starts from Lake Victoria. Here, you can see the White Nile (also known as the Victoria Nile) meandering northward from Lake Victoria.
The White Nile travels through Tanzania, Uganda, South Sudan, before reaching Khartoum, the capital of Sudan.
Image: the White Nile/Victoria Nile flowing north from Lake Victoria ©flickr.com
Lake Tana
Meanwhile on the Ethiopian plateau, the summer monsoon has led to a surge in the water level.
Now the Abay river has gained substantial volume from the seasonal rain, as it flows down the ravines before making a turn to the west, heading to the Sudanese plains. On this journey, it also received a new name. the "Blue Nile."
The seasonal precipitation from the Ethiopian plateau is the primary contributor of the annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt.
Image: Blue Nile, Ethiopia © Jialiang Gao (www.peace-on-earth.org)
Khartoum
The Blue Nile joins the White Nile at Khartoum, the capital of Sudan. From here, the united river continues its northward journey.
Image: Khartoum, Sudan © Earth Observatory, Nasa
The Six Cataracts
Historically, there lie six cataracts in the course of the Nile between Khartoum and Aswan.
At these cataracts, the peaceful river flow is interrupted by boulders in the river-bed, posing navigational obstacles.
Therefore, cataracts often mark the boundary between Egypt and Nubia. At the height of the Egyptian empire (the New Kingdom), Thutmosis I succeeded in pushing the Egyptian border southward to the vicinity of the 4th Cataract.
Image: Nile 1st Cataract © Marc Ryckaert
The Qena Bend
The course of the Nile bends sharply towards the east in the Qena Governorate, Egypt, before resuming its original path northward.
The slowed stream flow leads to increased sedimentation in this region. Since ancient Egyptians relied primarily on the sediment of the Nile to recharge the arable lands, the fertile flood plains at the Qena Bend are optimal for agricultural cultivation.
Image: aerial view of the west bank, Luxor (Thebes) © Egypttourplus.com
The Delta
Near today's Cairo, the Nile spreads out into several branches, forming the largest river Delta in the world.
No longer confined by the narrow Nile Valley, the marsh lands and flood plains in the Nile Delta supported the livelihood of a large population.
The geographic difference between the Delta and the Nile Valley became the basis of dividing ancient Egypt into the "Upper" and "Lower" Egypt.
Contrary to our convention of placing the North in the upper part of a map, the "Upper" and "Lower" Egypt are named referencing the upper and lower stream of the Nile.
Image: the landscape of Delta ©Penelope Wilson
History: the rise and fall
Chronology:
- Predynastic Period 5500-3000 BCE
- Early Dynastic Period 3000-2686 BCE 1-2 Dynasty
- Old Kingdom 2686-2181 BCE 3-6 Dynasty
- First Intermediate Period 2181-2025 BCE 7-10 Dynasty
- Middle Kingdom 2025-1773 BCE 11-13 Dynasty
- Second Intermediate Period 1773-1550 BCE 13-17 Dynasty
- New Kingdom 1550-1069 BCE 18-20 Dynasty
- Third Intermediate Period 1069-664 BCE 21-25 Dynasty
- Late Period 664-525 BCE 26-30 Dynasty
- Persian Period 525-332 BCE
- Graeco-Roman Period 332 BCE-640 CE
The Predynastic Period
(Naqada I-III)
5500-3000 BCE
#Naqada
Major sites: Naqada, Hierakonpolis, and Abydos
Decorated pottery and knife handles, among other things, shed light on the culture and society in the Predynastic Period.
The Naqada II period is well-known for its decorated wares. Common motifs on these wares include boats, wild animals, human figures, geometric patterns etc. Two themes stand out, they are military victory and hunting.
© Joukowsky Institute, Brown University
In the Naqada III period, the artistic expression seems to shift from pots to knife handles and ritual palettes.
In the example shown on the right, two dogs encircle the top of the ritual cosmetic palette. On the reverse side of this object, an assortment of fabulous wild animals is depicted attacking their preys. This palette thus won the nickname, the “Two Dog” palette.
Scholars believe that the two dogs symbolize the ruler’s power in containing chaos. The latter is represented by the presence of the wild animals.
© Ashmolean Museum, Oxford
The Old Kingdom
2686-2181 BCE
#Pyramids
Major Sites: Memphis, Saqqara, Meidum, Daschur, and Giza
Memphis
The ancient city of Memphis was the capital of the Old Kingdom. Strategically located at the threshold between the Nile Valley and the Delta, it allows the king to control the Upper and Lower Egypt with relative ease.
Among other things, Memphis is well known for its magnificent enclosure wall. In ancient Egyptian language, this city is called "Ineb-hedj," which translates to "The White Wall." On the right, you can see a conceptual rendering of the city in a video game.
Image: Memphis in Assassin's Creed Origin © Ubisoft
Saqqara
In the 3rd Dynasty, the ancient Egyptian kings started to experiment with pyramid building. The earliest pyramid-shaped monument is the so-called the “Step” Pyramid, a monument of King Djoser.
In this stage of pyramid building, the ancient architect achieved height of the pyramid by stacking platform-shaped structures ( mastabas ) on top of each other. This pyramid is thus appropriately named as the Step Pyramid.
Image: Djoser's Step Pyramid © Charles Sharp
Meidum
Entering the 4th Dynasty, king Snefru was an avid pyramid builder, who constructed at least three proto-pyramids.
Stylistically reminiscent of Djoser's Step Pyramid, the Meidum pyramid is considered Snefru’s first attempt (some say it was built by King Huni).
Image: Meidum Pyramid © Jon Bodsworth
Daschur
The Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramids at Daschur are the other two attempts made by Snefru at building an ideal pyramid.
The look of the Bend Pyramid is worth noting. As the picture here shows, the pyramid's angle of the inclination decreases in the upper section. It is likely that this change was made due to problems of stability during the construction.
Image: the Bent Pyramid ©Ivrienen
Giza
Finally, we reach the reign of Khufu, the famous Pharaoh who commissioned the Great Pyramid.
It is estimated that the Great Pyramid took 10 to 20 years to be constructed. As the oldest monument of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Great Pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure till 1311 CE.
People have repeatedly asked about who built the Great Pyramid and how this volume of construction could be achieved in the third millennium BCE. Dr. Mark Lehner's excavations at the workman's village at Giza answer these questions in details with newly discovered archaeological evidence.
Image: the Giza Pyramids © KennyOMG
Old Kingdom Art
Selected statues and statuettes in the round from Old Kingdom
If you visit the Pyramids now, there is not much to see besides the architecture. Such is not the case when the pyramids were first built. Sculptures of the tomb owners and their family, functioning as temporary habitats for the deceased’s souls, decorated the royal and private burials.
Both the kings and the elites made statues out of various stone, wood, and precious materials, like ivory. The artistic canon that is later known as the iconic “ancient Egyptian style” is well established in the reign of Djoser. However, it would not be fair to construe ancient Egyptian artistic styles as entirely static.
For instance, during Dynasty 5-6, the royal statues of Pepi I, exemplifies a stylistic shift towards depicting the king with elongated eyes, long nose, broad mouth, and full cheeks. Arguably, the new stylistic preference of the king influenced the elites in Dynasty 5-6, whose statuaries seem to have elongated limbs and share some of the facial features as the royal statuaries.
The First Intermediate Period
2181-2025 BCE
As centralized political power diminished in Late Old Kingdom (6th Dynasty), provincial governors rose to power throughout Egypt. This political scene characterizes the 1st Intermediate Period (2181-2025 BCE), but came to an end as the first king of the 11th Dynasty, Mentuhotep I, re-unified Egypt.
The Middle Kingdom
2125-1773 BCE
#Culture
Major Sites: Thebes, El-Lisht, and Lahun
Thebes
The rulers of the 11th Dynasty came from Thebes, a southern city nestled in the Qena Bend. After Mentuhotep II achieved control over the entire Egypt, Thebes became the capital of the state.
Intriguingly, the 11th Dynasty rulers not only distanced themselves from the Old Kingdom traditions by establishing a southern capital, their monument also differed significantly from the those of the Old Kingdom (i.e. pyramids).
This image is a conceptual rendering of Mentuhotep II's mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri (left). Can you name its differences with the Pyramids?
Image: conceptual rendering of Deir el-Bahri in Assasin's Creed Origin ©Ubisoft
El-Lisht
The last king of the 11th Dynasty, Mentuhotep III, was succeeded by a high official ( vizier ) at his court, Amenemhet I.
With Amenemhet I's ascent to power, began the 12th Dynasty. Among other changes, Amenemhet I moved the Residence up north, to a city named Itj-tawy ("seizing the two lands"), in today's el-Lisht.
Intentionally hearkening back to the Old Kingdom, Amenemhet I resumed the royal tradition of pyramid building. You can see his effort here on the right.
This period of reviving Old Kingdom culture is properly named as wehem-mesu "repeating in birth," the ancient Egyptian equivalent of "Renaissance."
Image: the pyramid of Amenemhet I, North Lisht © Jon Bodsworth
El-Lahun
El-Lahun is the town associated with the pyramid of Senusret II, the 4th king of the 12th Dynasty. The most remarkable discovery at El-Lahun is the workman village located to the East of the pyramid complex.
It is suggested that this village was home to the workmen of Senusret's pyramid. After the construction was completed, the villagers served in the funerary cult of the king.
It is noteworthy that around 1000 papyri fragments were discovered at the site of the village. The most famous text ( Kahun gynecological papyrus ) contains prescriptions for women's medical concerns.
Image: plan of Lahun © Nadine Moeller
Middle Kingdom Literature and Art
Literature flourished in the Middle Kingdom. Several narratives and wisdom texts composed in this period lived on to become the "classics" of ancient Egyptian literature.
The Story of Sinuhe
Perhaps the most well-known composition first produced in the Middle Kingdom, the Story of Sinuhe is a fictitious autobiography for an official named Sinuhe.
Image: P. Berlin 3022 © The Egyptian Museum of Berlin
- The story starts with Sinuhe escaping from Egypt to west Asia, because he is afraid of being charged with conspiracy after the assassination of Amenemhet I.
- After many years of travel in this area, he finally settles near Byblos and marries the daughter of a local ruler.
- There he accumulates great wealth and respect but still wishes to return to Egypt for a proper Egyptian burial at the end of his life.
- This request is finally granted to him by the new king (Senusret I).
Read a translation of this story here .
Map: the reconstruction of Sinuhe's journey
Selected statues in the round from Middle Kingdom
Royal art in the Middle Kingdom is subject to the influences of contemporary politics. Take royal statuaries as examples. Before and during the reign of Mentuhotep II, the royal statuaries appear to be bulkier. During the reign of Mentuhotep III, the style shifted towards a bodily proportion that is akin to that of the Old Kingdom. This stylistic shift is probably resulted from Mentuhotep II’s control over northern Egypt, as the Theban court acquired the access to the Memphite craftsmen who preserved the Old Kingdom artistic traditions.
Rulers of the 12th Dynasty hearkened back to Old Kingdom styles with their respective innovation. The latter is particularly pronounced in some statuaries dated to the reign of Senusret II; and the artistic innovation culminated during the time of Senusret III.
Compared to his predecessors, reliefs and statuaries of Senusret II and III tend to portray the king’s face as more advanced in age. It is important to note that the deviation from rendering the kings as youths does not equate to a less idealistic portrayal. As Gay Robins observes that although the face of Senusret III is care-worn, his body is always in perfect shape. Therefore, the “care-worn” facial features of Senusret III should be better understood as the changing aesthetics of the court.
In the private realm, an abundance of objects associated with the mortuary culture is attested. For instance, funerary stelae , decorated coffins , ivory apotropaic wands , female faience figurines , etc. Click the links above to learn about these objects.
The Middle Kingdom continued into the 13th Dynasty (1773-after 1650 BCE), when its reign from el-Lisht was increasingly threatened by the coming of the Hyksos (nomadic people from west Asia).
The Second Intermediate Period
1650-1555 BCE
In 1650 BCE, the Hyksos established the 15th Dynasty at Avaris, a city in east Delta. Its political and military control reached Middle Egypt, near the Hermopolitan area. Meanwhile in the South, the 16th Dynasty emerged from a few noble families in Thebes, including their families and allies from Abydos, el-kab, and Edfu.
The Hyksos-Theban stand-off sets the main tone for the Second Intermediate Period (15th-17th Dynasty).
The Hyksos Dynasty v.s. the Theban Dynasty during the Second Intermediate period (1650-1555 BCE)
After decades of warfare, the last few kings and queens in the 17th Dynasty pushed the Hyksos back to west Asia. Finally, it was King Ahmose who concluded the Second Intermediate Period with the beginning of the 18th Dynasty.
The New Kingdom
1550-1069 BCE
#Hatshepsut #Amarna #Rameses
Major Sites: Thebes, Amarna, and Abu Simbel
Thebes: Valley of the Kings
The immediate successors of Ahmose (Amehotep I and Thutmosis I) distanced themselves from traditional burial practices (i.e. pyramids) and started building rock-cut tombs in the western Theban hills.
The valley which they chose to build their tombs became the resting place of New Kingdom kings for five centuries. Today, this valley is known as the "Valley of the Kings.”
It is also noteworthy that Ahmose's successors began to decorate their tombs with texts and images from the Books of the Underworld, which are a collection of religious books describing the Sun god's journey through the nightly hours. The spells in these Underworld Books are believed to help the Sun god and the deceased king navigate the treacherous netherworld, so that the Sun god and the king can be “reborn."
Image: the 12th hour in Amduat (a Book of the Underworld ), from the tomb of Amenhotep II © Valley of the Kings
Thebes: Temple of Karnak
Meanwhile, construction was carried out across the Nile from the Valley of the King. Amenhotep I expanded the Middle Kingdom chapel at Karnak and used it as a center for venerating kingship along with the Sun god Amun-Re.
In the next 1000 years, kings and queens followed the example of Amenhotep I. The continuous expansion and reconfiguration of the Karnak temple complex made it the crown jewel of ancient Egyptian temples.
Image: the 1st pylon at Karnak © Open access
Thebes: Deir el-Bahari
Hatshepsut, one of the most well-known female king in Antiquity, became the ruler of Egypt after the death of her husband, Thutmosis II. As the daughter of Thutmosis I and queen Ahmose, as well as her late-husband's half-sister, Hatshepsut was a lady of preeminent status.
Among the monuments she erected throughout Egypt, the signature piece is undoubtedly her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari.
Adjacent to the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II, the terraces and colonnades in Hatshepsut's temple are clearly modeled after the former. However, Hatshepsut also exceeded her predecessor by adding the exquisite reliefs in the colonnades and the exotic fauna in the forecourt (see the reconstructed mortuary temple here ).
Analogous to the unconventional design of her mortuary temple, Hatshepsut's reign and life were anything but ordinary. You can read more about it here .
After the death of Hatshepsut, the throne was passed down to her stepson Thutmosis III. The newly crowned king waged a campaign to systematically erase Hatshepsut's names and images from public buildings. Nevertheless, judging from Hatshepsut's fame today, it is clear that Thutmosis III's PR campaign was far from a success.
Image: the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut ©Open access
Amarna
The New Kingdom reached its height of prosperity during the reign of Amenhotep III , father of Akhenaten. Recently, the Antiquity Ministry of Egypt discovered a city in west Thebes , which date to the co-regency of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten. This discovery is significant, because it is one of the few urban settlements which are excavated in Egypt. There is no doubt that this site will inform us of the urban and daily lives of people living in the “Golden Age” of the empire.
Concomitant with the growth of the Egyptian empire was the elevated status of the Sun god, Amun-Re, who was hailed as the supreme god in some cases.
The religious "revolution" of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) stemmed out from this context. Amenhotep IV rejected Amun-Re and embraced the disc form of the Sun god, Aten, instead. To enforce the new cult of Aten, the king enacted a series of monotheistic reforms.
First, he changed his name to "Akhenaten" and moved the capital from Memphis to Amarna (Akhentaten, "the horizon of Aten"). Aten became the only god officially worshipped in this newly found city.
Additionally, Akhenaten disbanded the priesthood and only allowed communication with Aten through the royal family. He also adopted an artistic style that deviates from the traditional Egyptian canon.
Akhenaten's reform was met with resistance and opposition, especially from the Theban priesthood. After the king's death, his heir, Tutankhaten, quickly abandoned Amarna and moved the court back to Memphis.
Watch a clip from the opera Akhenaten where the king praises Aten in a hymn.
Image: the reconstructed wall of talatat (blocks) in the Luxor Museum © Olaf Tausch
Abu Simbel
The 18th Dynasty ended with a reversion to the pre-Amarna religious and political institutions. Although the Amarna artistic style had a lasting effect on ancient Egyptian aesthetics.
The 19th Dynasty began with Rameses I. His grandson, Rameses II, also known as Rameses the Great, was an avid builder and campaigner.
In an attempt to demonstrate the empire's power to neighboring Nubia and secure Egypt's southern border, Ramese II built Abu Simbel near the second cataract of the Nile. The original site of the temple is now submerged under the Aswan dam. The temple is completely cut up and moved to its current location in the 1960s.
Watch footages of relocating Abu Simbel here .
The battle of Qadesh, temple of Rameses II (the Ramesseum)
Perhaps inspired by the campaigns and monuments of Rameses II, Egyptian kings named themselves after Rameses the Great. In a 200-year time period, there were a total of 11 Rameses. However, unlike their ancestor, the reign of these Rameses (20th Dynasty) is marked with the decline of royal power and the rise of the Theban high priests.
Selected statuaries from mid-18th Dynasty (Pre-Amarna period)
Hatshepsut also commissioned a variety of statues for her temple at Deir el-Bahari. Some of these statues present her as a female king, wearing a fitting dress and the nemes-headdress, others attenuate her female features by portraying her in full male attire with a flat chest.
Approximately 70 years after the time of Hatshepsut, Amenhotep III ascended the throne. He is known as the ancient Egyptian king with the largest number of statues survived. The likeness of Amenhotep III is easy to recognize due to its almond-shaped eyes, full cheek, and a faint smile.
These statuaries were discovered throughout the Egyptian empire, as far south as the third cataract of the Nile (Soleb). However, the most well-known statues of Amenhotep III are found at home: The Colossi of Memnon. They are the two massive stone statues erected before the mortuary temple of Amenhotep III.
Tomb painting of Nebamun, BM 37984, 1350 BCE (the reign of Amenhotep III), Luxor
In the mid-18th Dynasty, ancient Thebes became, among other things, a sacred city, with the temples of Karnak and Luxor on the east bank; and royal mortuary temples on the west.
This landscape became an ideal background for hosting various festivals. During one such festival, the Beautiful Festival of the Valley, the statue of Amun travels to the west bank, visiting the royal mortuary temples, and finally arrives at Deir el-Bahari.
Festival goers would join the divine procession and hold feasts in their relatives’ tombs in the west bank. For this reason, many private tomb chapels from the mid-18th Dynasty are decorated with scenes where the living and the dead feast and celebrate together.
North Wall of Tutankhamun's burial chamber © Kenneth Garrett
Post-Amarna Art
The artistic influence of the Amarna period is still felt during the reign of Tutankhamun. Although the boy king attempted to revert back to the “before time,” the human figures in his tomb painting retained Amarna influence in their bodily proportion.
Selected tombs from late 18th-19th Dynasty
The last king of the 18th Dynasty, Horemheb, almost succeeded at restoring the traditional artistic canon. However, human figures in his tombs still do not have the exact Old Kingdom proportion, as they tend to have shorter lower legs.
Coming into the 19th Dynasty, the reign of Sety I marked a period of artistic rejuvenation. The tomb of Sety I at the Valley of the King is fully decorated with painted raised relief. The proportion of human figures finally returned to the traditional artistic canon. Sety’s project at the temple of Abydos exhibits a similar high quality that is comparable to the decoration of his tomb.
In the 19th and the 20th Dynasty, decorated tombs were built for members of the royal family, including queens, princesses and princes. Their burial site is known as the Valley of the Queens today. The most famous tomb in the Valley of the Queens is that of Nefertari, the wife of Rameses II. This tomb is renowned for its brightly painted reliefs of the highest quality.
The artists and workmen who built the royal tombs during the New Kingdom lived close to the construction sites. Their village is one of the few urban settlements that are archaeologically excavated in Egypt. Besides a sector for the living, the workman’s village (Deir el-Medina) also comprises a large necropolis dotted with lavishly decorated tombs.
The Third Intermediate Period
1069-664 BCE
With the death of Rameses XI, Egypt became again divided into two political powers, the contention of which remained the main theme of the Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BCE).
The 21-24th Dynasty were founded by "Libyans," which refers to the (semi-)nomadic people living west from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean. Centered in Tanis, a north-eastern city in the Delta, the Libyan dynasties are rivaled by the priesthood of Amun at Thebes.
As the Libyan kings and the Theban priesthood became complacent in the status quo, a military force from Nubia (today's Sudan) swept the land of Egypt and established its rule (25th Dynasty). However, this short-lived Kushite Dynasty crumbled in front of the Assyrian invasion. King Taharqa fled south, relinquishing Egypt to the vassal ruler of Assyria.
The Late Period
664-332 BCE
#Archaism&Innovation
Major sites: Sais and Tuna el-Gebel
The Graeco-Roman Period
332 BCE - 394 CE
#Cleopatra #Multiculturalism
Major Sites: Alexandria and Edfu
Alexandria
Alexander the Great arrived at Egypt in 332 BCE. Legend has it that he crowned himself in the temple of Ptah at Memphis in compliance with the pharaonic tradition.
After the untimely demise of the Macedonian king, Alexander's general, Ptolemy, acquired Egypt and Libya. In 305 BCE, Ptolemy declared himself king of Egypt (Ptolemy I).
Evidence suggests that Ptolemy I maintained a close relationship with members of the 30th Dynasty royal blood-line and the high priesthood at Memphis. However, a breach from the pharaonic governance was signaled by Alexandria's ascent to prominence as Egypt's new capital.
A port city on the Mediterranean coast, Alexandria's location was favorable for keeping a close tie with mainland Greece. Ptolemy I intentionally modeled the city's Mouseion (to which the library annexed) after the schools of Plato and Aristotle at Athens to cultivate the city as the epicenter of Greek culture.
Image: Aerial view of Alexandria in Assassin's Creed Origins © Ubisoft
Edfu
The Ptolemies' endowment to Alexandria juxtaposed with their patronage to ancient Egyptian temples, especially in their role of legitimizing their kingship.
The temple of Horus at Edfu were primarily built by the Ptolemies. In this temple complex, several strategies were employed to strengthen the legitimacy of the Ptolemaic Dynasty.
On the first pylon, Ptolemy XII is depicted in full pharaonic regalia smiting Egypt's enemies in front of Horus and Hathor. The arrangement of this scene is highly similar to examples from the New Kingdom, and can be traced back to the Namer Palette. By presenting himself in pharaonic attires and carrying out the responsibilities of an Egyptian king, Ptolemy XII placed himself in the long lineage of ancient Egyptian pharaohs.
Image: first pylon of the temple of Edfu © open access
Dendera
When Cleopatra VII ascended to the throne in 51 BCE, Egypt was struggling in the midst of internecine political strife, bankruptcy, and Roman interference.
Not much contemporary evidence survived to tell the full story of her reign, although her relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony sparked imagination of many Latin authors.
The relief from the temple of Dendera (see right) is one of the few iamges that can be securely associated with Cleopatra VII. In this scene, Cleopatra VII is depicted standing behind her son, Caesarion. She is holding a sistrum and a menit, both are sacred ritual instruments associated with Hathor, the goddess of love.
Image: back wall of the temple of Dendera © Open access
The battle of Actium sealed the defeat of Cleopatra and her lover, Mark Anthony. This lost battle also paved the way for Octavian's (Augustus) plan of assimilating Egypt into the Roman empire.
During the 4 centuries of Roman rule, few emperors actually visited Egypt, despite the province being a main contributor to the Roman emperor's coffer.
Egypt's dry climate preserved a significant amount of texts and material cultures. There is no doubt that future excavations both on land and under water will reveal to us more secrets of this ancient civilization.
Watch the footage of the underwater excavation at Thonis-Heracleion (a Ptolemaic port city). Heracleion excavations, ©Franck Goddio/Hilti Foundation.mov
Until then...
This is your crash course on ancient Egyptian history!
Seated scribe, tomb of Horemheb, Saqqara
If you noticed any typo or error, please contact lingxin.zhang100@gmail.com.
See you in class!
