Water Crises in the Middle East

Qatar is an oil-rich peninsular Asian country situated between Bahrain and United Arab Emirates. Its mostly flat, low-lying, desert terrain results in the state having very little arable land. The climate, which is relatively uniform throughout the country due to its smaller size, is dominated by desert conditions with quite mild winters and hot summers. The country's cool season extends from December to February while April to October faces much hotter conditions, reaching as high as 117F. Although it may be cooler in the winter months, the country receives sunshine year round (see table below). Qatar has zero permanent bodies of freshwater. This harsh environment sees scarce naturally renewable water resources, such as rain and groundwater. Because the eastern border lies along the Persian Gulf, sand dunes and salt flats called " sabkhah s," are the main topographical features of the south & southeastern territories. A rapidly growing population and a booming economy are putting great pressures on the thirsty nation.

With a lack of surface water, since there no perennial lakes or rivers, and minimal rainfall (~75mm/yr), groundwater is the only natural source of fresh water in the nation. The Qatari aquifers, made of Karst (limestone, dolomite, and gypsum), are extremely susceptible to pollution and contaminants. Any anthropogenic-sourced chemical elements, toxic substances, and saltwater, can infiltrate quickly into the aquifer and spread over a vast expanse, especially above a very cracked area. For this reason, over two-thirds of wells in Qatar are classified as moderately saline (see right). With such little available freshwater, farmers are known to overexploit the desert state’s aquifers. This overexploitation of groundwater by the agricultural sector increases the risk that the groundwater will become unfit for crops or drinking water, as it results in an increase in the concentration of pollutants.

• Qatar's H2O comes from:
• 50% desalinated water
• → brine water
• → unsustainable
• → bad for marine wildlife
• → “synthetic” water may not have essential minerals needed by the human body
• 36% groundwater
• → currently being extracted several times more than the rate at which it is replenishing itself via natural processes
• 14% recycled wastewater
• → no demand for potable reused water (cultural reasons)
• → "Yuck" factor

Since 2014, Qatar’s General Electricity & Water Corporation, Kahramaa, invested in decreasing the amount of non-revenue water due to leakage in its infrastructure. As of 2017, water leakage dropped down to five percent. The desalinated water that travels through the pipe network must undergo a post-treatment process to reduce its corrosiveness. This treatment helps prevent degradation of the infrastructure over time.

Many prefer drinking bottled water due to fears about the quality of the tap water. Those who drink the piped water and can afford to often purchase kitchen faucet and shower head filters to improve water quality.

Regulators and treatment workers should add essential minerals to the water to help ward off health problems in the population.

“In addition to an increased risk of sudden death, it has been suggested that intake of water low in magnesium may be associated with a higher risk of motor neuronal disease, pregnancy disorders (so-called preeclampsia), sudden death in infants, and some types of cancer.

Recent studies suggest that the intake of soft water, i.e. water low in calcium, is associated with a higher risk of fracture in children, certain neurodegenerative diseases, pre-term birth and low weight at birth and some types of cancer.” -- World Health Organization (2016)

Qatar has a mixed population, with 12% of all residents being native Qatari, and the rest being immigrants or expatriates. Qatar is one of the richest countries in the world, and 14% of the citizens in Qatar are millionaires (in dollars).

The ongoing Gulf Crisis, in which Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Libya, Yemen and the Maldives ended diplomatic relations with Qatar, is important to consider alongside its water crisis. Arab countries closed land, sea and air links with Qatar, isolating the tiny nation from its neighbors. Indeed, the one country it shares a border with (Saudi Arabia) has been closed. Arab nations blame Qatar for its. alleged: 1) support of terror groups in the region, 2) interference in sovereign affairs, and 3) lack of action towards groups that threaten political stability. The political crisis surrounding Qatar is affecting business in one of the biggest natural gas producers and travel hubs in the world (Flight Radar via AP).

pictured: original airline paths for Qatari flights before bans through the airspace of Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, UAE, & Egypt

Israel has a semi-arid climate with limited sources of water. Coping with both a growing population and a rising standard of living, the country also needs to handle an increasing consumption of water per capita. Unfortunately, there have been five consecutive years of drought.

Israel has diverse climate conditions, caused mainly by its varied topographic conditions. There are two distinct seasons: a cool, rainy winter from October to April and a dry, hot summer from May to September. Precipitation is minimal to light in the south, which receives about 1 inch (25 mm) per year in the ʿArava Valley south of the Dead Sea. The northern precipitation is heavier, up to 44 inches (1,120 mm) a year in the Upper Galilee region.The annual rainfall averages about 20 inches (508 mm) per year in the large coastal cities. Precipitation falls roughly 60 days during the year, throughout the rainy season. Extreme water shortages ensue in summers when rain falls late or total amounts are less than normal.

Annual temperatures vary on average with elevation and locational differences. Coastal areas along the Mediterranean Sea having mild temperatures ranging from 84 °F in August to 61 °F in January, along with higher rates of humidity compared to inland areas

The geography of Israel is moutanous in the north, with desert conditions in the south. Higher elevations (ie. Upper Galilee) experience cool nights year-round, with occasional snow during winter.

Israel's major rivers with an annually occurring flow are the Jordan, Kishon, Yarkon and Yarmouk Rivers. The Hold Land nation has only one lake, called Lake Kinneret. According to Fanack Water, "Water availability in the lake is predicted to decrease to around 340 MCM/yr for the period 2010-2030." The rest of Israeli surface water sources, known as "wadis", are seasonal.

The Coastal Aquifer and the Mountain Aquifer are the country's two biggest groundwater aquifers. On September 1, 2018 water level measurements revealed that the Mountain Aquifer is just 2cm above its dangerous red line in the south, and 4cm above it in the groundwater's center. Below the red line, the water is highly at risk for salt penetration from deeper geological levels. The outcome of this would be poor water quality that is unsafe for either human consumption or for agriculture use.

Pictured to the left is the Jordan River Basin, which is shared between Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and Syria. Despite flowing through these borders, the water in the basin is not shared equally in the region. Israel extracts the majority of water, followed by Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon respectively. For the past 52 years, Palestine has been permitted access to neither the river nor its water resources.

According to the Jewish National Fund, "There are three types of alternative water: Sewage water that has been purified for irrigating crops, floodwater that is trapped by dams, and desalinated water. There are tremendous amounts of sewage water, floodwater, salt water and saline water in Israel that are not being optimally utilized. Storing this water and improving its quality using suitable technology will significantly increase the amount of available water."

Desalination is the #1 source for portable drinking water. Part of this reason is that removing garbage from Israel's sewage system is extremely challenging. The biggest wastewater treatment plant in the country, Shafdan, claims that 75% of the garbage needed to be removed is one thing: wet wipes.

To the left, a researcher at Hebrew University is tests how crops are impacted by pharmaceutical residues that persist in sewage water even after rigorous cleaning

Established in 1964, the National Water Carrier (NWC) is a system of pipes, canals and reservoirs that is responsible for supplying Israel with most of its water supply. The NWC was Israel’s largest infrastructure project over the last 50 years.

Tap water is safe and drinkable in Israel, except in some southern regions and at The Dead Sea. There, some luxury hotels have specialized tap filters on each floor that visitors must use for hydration. Although Israeli water is technically safe, the various minerals and particulates in the water may make consumers queasy with stomach aches. To avoid feeling unwell, bottled water is often bought by residents and tourists. Nonetheless, minimal amounts of the local water are safe enough for brushing teeth.

In 2012, the Israeli Water Authority published an important goal outline to ensure water availability until 2050. While total water use is expected to rise dramatically by that year (2,131 MCM in 2010 to 3,571 MCM), the availability of water is projected to decline by 10-15%, [no] thanks to modern global warming. Israel's task of managing increased consumption and production therefore points to enhanced alternative water sources, including desalination and treated wastewater.

In summary, the 2012 Water Authority's grand plan describes the following strategy points:

• Increase desalination production to 700 MCM/yr by 2020 by developing seawater desalination plants as a primary water supply source. Plans include a desalination plant in the Western Galilee. The master plan also outlines construction of a desalination plant at Sorek, which became operational in 2013.
• Develop the national conveyance system for accommodation of desalinated water. This includes: developing a fifth water system to Jerusalem, developing the western and eastern Galilee regions as well as the southern and northern Sharon region, developing the master plan in the Negev and the Arava, developing the western water carrier and adapting regional systems to the upgrade.
• Increase average performance capacity of the water and sewage corporations.
• Advance projects to remove contaminants from the Coastal Aquifer in the area of Tel Aviv.
• Upgrade and expand sewage treatment plants. This includes:
• 1. Improving the water quality from existing plants and further utilizing treated wastewater potential;
• 2. Connecting army camps to the sewage systems;
• 3. Developing or expanding seven wastewater treatment plants to tertiary level treatment. - Fanack

Lebanon is divided topographically into four sectors: the coastal strip running along the eastern Mediterranean, the Lebanon mountains, the fertile Bekaa Valley, and Anti-Lebanon mountainous chain. Due to Lebanon's generally sloping landforms, water erosion is frequent, which results in a weak top soil layer and thus a reduction in water retention capabilities. Approximately 35% of the total land area is cultivated. The climate is defined as Mediterranean since it lies on its coast; therefore the country gets heavy rainfall from November to May, but dry and arid conditions in the remaining seven months of the year. Lebanon struggles the most with the provision of drinking water in these drier months.

• Surface Water: Lebanon has 40 rivers, however only 17 are classified as perennial (having continuous flow). Lebanon's largest river is the Litani (red), which flows entirely within the country. There are two transboundary rivers: the Asi-Orontes (yellow), which flows into Syria and the Hasbani (green) which flows into Israel. The remaining rivers originate in the mountains and flow directly into the Mediterranean; these rivers have much smaller catchment areas (~200km2) , defined as the area where rainfall collects before flowing into the river, relative to the Litani River (2180 km2) . Replenishment of these rivers is through precipitation, snowmelt in the winter months, and Lebanon's 2000 springs. In recent years, water quality has declined drastically due to drought paired with an increase in pollution and agricultural runoff. 

Groundwater: Approximately 50% of the water supply in Lebanon is derived from groundwater sources. While there are 51 existing groundwater basins, the two aquifers that are of note are the Kesrouane Jurassic and the Sannine-Maameltain which cover 5,590 km2 of the 10,400km2 total land area of Lebanon. The number of privately constructed wells has grown exponentially over the years due to unreliable public water services; only 842 wells of Lebanon's 80,000 wells, the majority of which were constructed illegally, are used for the public water supply. Excessive extraction of aquifers located along the heavily populated coastal areas has led to saltwater intrusion, contaminating these drinking water sources. While other groundwater sources are contaminated by untreated wastewater, as only 7% of wastewater is properly treated before being released. The uncontrolled exploitation of the groundwater for urban, industrial and agricultural use and the various forms of contamination play a large role in Lebanon's water scarcity issue.

• An insignificant portion of potable water is derived from alternative sources. As of 2008, only 3.6% of total water withdrawal comes from desalination plants. And while some treated wastewater is used for irrigation purposes, none is used for drinking water.
• To combat with the extreme lack of drinking water sources, the World Bank has partnered with the Lebanese government to launch the Water Supply Augmentation Project. This is a 617 million dollar project to construct a dam, the Bisri dam, by June of 2024 (pictured on right). The dam will serve as storage for water intended for the public water network in the Greater Beirut and Mount Lebanon regions of the country. The dam will be particularly useful for storing water in the rainy season to be used in the drier months, that would otherwise just flow out to sea. With this project, they claim that the public water services will be more consistent for the 1.6 million people living in this region.

The existing water supply network in Lebanon is old and poorly maintained. The pipeline coverage ranges from 62% and 87% depending on the region. And up to 50% of the water running through the pipes is lost as non-revenue water due to leaks and breaks. As a result, the majority of citizens only have access to water for a few hours a day. Because of these inconsistencies, citizens must turn to expensive alternative water sources, such as water purchased from privately owned water tanker trucks or bottled water. Sohat water, the leading Lebanese bottled water brand is pictured on the right.

The ongoing civil war in Syria has led to a large influx of Syrian refugees to Lebanon since it broke out in 2011. The Lebanese government estimates that 1.5 million refugees currently inhabit the country. This has put an estimated 30% increase of demand on water services. There are efforts by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR, to improve sanitary conditions in order to prevent water-washed illnesses and to provide safe drinking water via the rehabilitation of water supply systems or construction of additional pipelines and boreholes. As a result of these projects, 192,000 Lebanese citizens and Syrian refugees will have better access to potable water.  

Jordan is divided topographically into three sectors: the Jordan Valley (also known as al-Ghor), the highlands, and the Syro-Arabian desert plateau. The Jordan Valley runs down the western border of Jordan. The northern portion of the valley is the country's most fertile region as it contains the Jordan River. The very southern portion of the valley contains Jordan's only access to the sea, the Gulf of Aqaba. This western strip of land has a Mediterranean climate with rainfall concentrated in the winter months and hot, drier conditions for the remainder of the year. The highlands separate the Jordan Valley from the eastern desert region. Approximately 75% of the country is dominated by the desert climate conditions of the Syro-Arabian desert plateau; this area receives less than 120 mm of precipitation per year.  

Surface Water: 27% of Jordan's water supply comes from their surface water. According to Jordan's Ministry of Water & Irrigation (MWI), there are 15 surface water basins that are utilized. The three that are of note are the country's main rivers: the Jordan (outlined below in red), Yarmouk (outlined below in green) and the Zarqua (outlined below in blue). The upper portion of the Jordan River lies within Israel. Due Israel's diversion of the river's water, the flow of water that actually reaches Jordan has been reduced drastically; and because of this reduction of flow, the water quality is incredibly poor due to high salinity and pollution. The Yarmouk River is shared with Syria. Syria has built over 45 dams on the upper portion of the river, again leaving Jordan with little water that they can derive from this source. The Zarqua is the only river of these three that is entirely within the state. Unfortunately, this river is incredibly polluted as it is located within Jordan's central industrial area. Few of the industrial plants located near this river treat their wastewater before dumping it into the Zarqua.

Groundwater: Approximately 59% of Jordan's water resources are derived from groundwater sources. Jordan has 12 groundwater basins that it abstracts water from for drinking water as well as agricultural and industrial purposes. As of 2017, 10 of these 12 basins were abstracted well beyond their safe yield, the amount of water that is recharged naturally (see figure to the right). This trend of abstraction beyond a sustainable rate not only depletes the aquifers over time but also increases the salinity and pollution levels. Additional sources of contamination include recycled irrigation water, human wastewater and waste due to industrial activities. Recognizing the severity of this issue, Jordan sought to resolve it in 1998 with an official national groundwater management policy. The policy focused on how to prevent over abstraction, including illegal drilling and metering of all wells. According to Jordan's ongoing records from the MWI, the number of illegal wells has grown from 27 in 2007 to 177 in 2017. In addition, in 2006 a scheme for groundwater protection zones was outlined that restricts land use/human activity around drinking water supplies to avoid contamination. 

14% of Jordan's water supply comes from treated wastewater. The wastewater has yet to be used for drinking water purposes, but rather for irrigation. According to UNICEF, as of 2017 there were 34 functioning wastewater treatment plants. The country hopes that using the treated wastewater for irrigation will increase the surface water and groundwater resources that can be devoted to drinking water. Using the treated wastewater also decreases the amount of raw sewage that typically gets dumped into these drinking water resources, thus reducing the amount of contamination.

Other alternatives for freshwater include artificial rain from cloud seeding technology. Essentially, negative ions are dispersed through the air that improve the condensation of clouds, increasing total rainfall. The Jordanian government partnered with WeatherTec in May of 2016 to see if the technology would be successful. Reports showed during the trial period that rainfall doubled for 17 days of the month of December. Due to its incredible success, the project has been extended and the technology will continue to be employed. Refer to the video below for further detail.

 A multibillion dollar proposal, partially funded by Israel, called the Red Sea-Dead Sea Conveyance is also currently in the works. Pipes would be built to deliver water from the Red Sea to a desalination plant in Aqaba, the Jordanian port. The brine byproduct produced from the desalination process would then be piped to the Dead Sea. This is a win-win situation for both countries as the desalination plant would provide Jordan with an alternative drinking water source and the brine byproduct would help halt the sea level decline of the Dead Sea. (see right for proposal)

While 86% of the population has access to a piped network, the pipes are rarely on. Jordanians living in urban areas typically receive water from the pipes once a week. Those living in rural areas have access less than once every two weeks. Many houses have installed rooftop or basement storage tanks that can be filled for use during the lapses of time when piped water is unavailable. The remaining 14% of the population without access to a piped network are in a particularly dire state. They are forced to rely entirely on privately owned water tanker providers. The water tankers, who operate either via a license or illegally, sell and deliver groundwater to them. However, due to Jordan's severe over abstraction of groundwater, this supply is projected to run dry if current trends persist.

Non-revenue water is a major issue in Jordan. According to UNICEF, 52% of the water that currently goes through the pipes is either lost through pipe breaks, illegal connections or not accounted for due to meter losses. The percentage of non-revenue water has remained somewhere above 42% since the MWI began their data collection in 2007 (see right).

 Similar to Lebanon, 1.4 million Syrian refugees have fled to Jordan as a result of the civil war. Of this 1.4 million, the UNHCR has registered 678,000 Syrians, which accounts for approximately 10% of the country's total population. Pictured on the right is the Zaatari refugee camp in Jordan, the second largest refugee camp in the world. Organizations like UNICEF have come in and constructed various water and wastewater networks at refugee camps like this one to improve access to drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene practices of its residents; while this is very much a positive thing, the spike in population growth makes Jordan's water crisis much, much worse. Future steps Jordan must take soon to reduce this strain would be to: reduce the amount of non-revenue water, use more treated wastewater for irrigation so groundwater and surface can be used exclusively for drinking, and begin the Red Sea-Dea Sea Conveyance project. 

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LXzbK3W1fao)