Julius Caesar vs Augustus

In the final years of the Roman Republic, two main figures attempted to seize power and unite the nation under a single figurehead. These two men, Julius Caesar and Augustus (originally named Octavian) rose to power under similar circumstances, but Caesar was assassinated by his enemies in the Roman Senate, while Augustus established the Roman Empire, which lasted for almost 500 years, as well as the Pax Romana, a period of general peace and prosperity that spanned two centuries. Augustus succeeded where Caesar failed, primarily due to his treatment of the Senate, but also due in part to his clever use of propaganda to curry favor, both in the masses and in the upper classes (i.e., Senators and equestrians).

Julius Caesar, along with Crassus and Pompey, was a member of the First Triumvirate of Rome. Crassus was killed leading soldiers in the East, and Pompey was influenced by the Roman Senate to depose Caesar while Caesar was fighting in Gaul. Caesar broke Roman law, bringing his army into the city to force Pompey out. Eventually, Pompey faced Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus, where Caesar won. Pompey fled from the battle, but was ultimately killed by the Egyptian king.

After defeating Pompey, Caesar returned to Rome and took the title of dictator perpetuo (“dictator for life”), the only position that remained of the old Roman kings. He kept control over the army and was extremely popular with the masses, much like the general Marius was before him. However, while in power, Caesar made several mistakes that eventually led to his downfall. First and foremost, as dictator, he did not respect the Senate, which greatly angered the senators. The Republic still existed, so the senators felt cheated by Caesar for his unilateral decisions regarding certain laws. In addition, Caesar magnanimously pardoned several individuals (e.g., Brutus and Cassius) that eventually participated in his assassination. In short, while Caesar did command the army, he left himself exposed to the Senate, and they seized the opportunity to free themselves from his rule.

Octavian was adopted by Caesar in Caesar's will, including Octavian in the Second Triumvirate, made up of himself, Lepidus, and Mark Antony. Lepidus was forced into retirement after Agrippa, Octavian's general, won an impactful battle in Sicily. Mark Antony, who governed the Eastern portion of the Republic, was the subject of a negative propaganda campaign designed by Octavian. Eventually, Octavian convinced the Senate that Mark Antony should be deposed, and led an army to battle Antony. At the Battle of Actium Octavian's army (led by Agrippa) bested Antony's army and Antony fled with his lover, Cleopatra, to Egypt, where the two committed suicide.

Unlike Caesar, Octavian had several advantages that helped him to solidify his power. Specifically, Octavian had already won the appreciation of the Romans through his propaganda campaigns, and he also maintained a facade that the Roman Republic still existed, despite soon establishing a new government call the Principate with him as the leader, or princeps. In addition, Octavian treated the Senate much better than Caesar did, proposing legislation properly and thus keeping the senators happy. However, after the First Settlement in 31 BC, in which he was guaranteed to be re-elected as consul each year, and his ascension to censor in 28 BC, Octavian began to expel and add senators to reform the Senate into one that would support his rule. Eventually, Octavian’s power, particularly his consistent retention of the position of consul, inspired jealously among other senators who sought the same office. To combat this and assure his reign, Augustus volunteered to relinquish all power he had, but he also (most likely) manipulated the Senate and the people into giving him more power instead. These new powers, as well as the name of Augustus, allowed Augustus to create a new government, the Principate, in 27 BC. In addition, the Second Settlement of 21 BC heaped even more power onto Augustus. While he was no longer consul, Augustus was allowed greater proconsular power, which ensured that he retained control of the military, was named the princeps (“first among equals”), and was given tribunician power (i.e., the powers given to tribunes), which even though he was a patrician, was still legal because he didn’t hold the office of tribune itself. These powers, along with becoming Pontifex Maximus, the leader of Roman religion, in 13 BC, essentially made Augustus the emperor of Rome, even if not in name.

The main differences between Caesar’s failure to become a dictator and Augustus’ success at becoming emperor lie in their rise to power and their handling of the Senate while in power. Caesar spent most if his time in the First Triumvirate away from Rome, and once he became dictator, while he did pardon many who wronged him (which in hindsight might not have been the best decision), he did not act within the bounds of the Roman Republic, ensuring that the Senate did not like him, eventually leading to his downfall. Augustus, on the other hand, remained in Rome when the Second Triumvirate divided the provinces, allowing him to run a successful propaganda campaign against Mark Antony. Furthermore, Augustus used the existing laws to his own advantage, seeming to maintain the Republic, thus pacifying the Senate, while actually accruing power for himself until he could replace senators with his own supporters. It is interesting to think, though, that had Julius Caesar not adopted Octavian, Octavian would most likely not have had the public support necessary to succeed in becoming emperor. In fact, he might not have even been a member of the Second Triumvirate.