Ottoman Empire: Rise, Fall and Influences on Europe

Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

(Source:  https://www.britannica.com/place/Ottoman-Empire )

The Ottoman Empire (Turkish Empire) existed for 634 years between 1299 and 1923 and is considered as one of the largest ancient empires to ever exist. The founding father of the Ottoman Empire was Osman I. At the height of its power, the empire covered the regions of today’s Anatolia, Middle East and parts of South-eastern Europe and North Africa. The study of the Ottoman Empire raises important themes on the factors that contributed to its successful expansion. Questions also arise as to why a big and expansive empire would not survive the histories and exist up to date. The failures of the empire also emerge from the study. 

By virtue of the fact that Ottoman Empire is one of the historically known empires, among the mightiest and longest-lasting dynasties in known history attracted me to research on the successes and failures of the empire. I am also interested in studying the legacy of the empire that today’s governments can learn from, both from its successes and failures. Literature about the Ottoman Empire suggest that its culture influenced modern cultures of Europe, so this makes it a relevant topic in learning how human activities have evolved over the years. 

Research questions:

· What made the Ottoman Empire strong and successful for a long time?

· What factors led to the fall of the Ottoman Empire?

· How did the culture of Ottoman Empire and Europe influence each other? 

Evrensel, A. Y., & Minx, T. (2017). An institutional approach to the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Cogent Economics & Finance, 5(1), 1380248.

Summary

In the article “An institutional approach to the decline of the Ottoman Empire” (2017) Evrensel and Minx examine the institutional factors that led to the decline of the Ottoman Empire in 1918. They identify three institutions, namely “succession structure, power structure, and the identity of the Ottoman elites and the landownership-military-public finance triangle.” Concerning succession structure, they claim that fundamental cultural transformations of the Turks resulted to power struggles for who would be the next ruler. Regarding power structure, the fall is attributed to the denial elite status to the Muslim Turks. This status was instead given to the ulema and janissaries who lacked an imperial decision-making power. Lastly, the change of landownership-military-public finance triangle led to the loss of revenue that made it impossible for the empire to keep up with latest technologies. 

How it contributes to the overall understanding of the topic

The article draws some important lessons on how the Ottoman Empire institutions led to the fall of the empire. It claims that institutional success is determined by the incentive structure that they provide and replacing an old with a new institution can lead to bad outcomes if the new institution does not provide any better incentives compared to the previous one. This article, thus contributes to the understanding of the fall of the Ottoman Empire due to the failure of successive institutions to provide better services compared to their previous ones. It will contribute to answering the question on the reasons that led to the fall of the Ottoman Empire especially in the later years of its rule (19th and early 20th Century).

Fanani, A. F. (2013). The Ottoman Empire: Its Rise, Decline and Collapse. Jurnal Salam, 14(1).

Summary

The article “The Ottoman Empire: Its Rise, Decline and Collapse” (2013) by Fanani explains the rise, decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire. It recognizes the Ottoman Empire as an empire that proved that the Islamic people could make strong imperials even after their devastation by the Mongol Invasion. The Ottoman Empire was created in 1453 by warrior of Muslim Turks and expanded over the 15th and 16th centuries. It was so expansive that it consisted of 75 different ethnic groups of Muslims, Jews and Christian faiths. Its success is attributed to a strong military power. Examples of successful military campaigns that illustrated the strength of the Ottoman Empire were the Constantinople, the conquest of Arabs between 1516 and 1517 and the European campaigns between 1520 and 1566. The Ottoman Empire’s fall is attributed to the death of the Sultan Suleyman, who led the European campaign and was the most wise and powerful of all Ottoman Empire’s sultans. After his death, the empire was faced by a web of problems that led to its decline, which ranged from economic, social, moral and cultural problems. The most affected aspect was its military and which was the major strength of the empire.

How it contributes to the overall understanding of the topic

This article provides information on one of the most interest topics of the Ottoman Empire, which is, how it managed to stay strong for 600 years and what led to its fall. It provides rich information on these aspects and will help in explaining the strengths and weaknesses of the empire. 

Hajdarpasic, E. (n.d). Religious change and the Ottoman Empire, 1450-1750. The Newberry. Retrieved from  https://dcc.newberry.org/collections/religious_change_and_the_ottoman_empire%20 

Summary

In his article, Hajdarpasic explains the rise and expansion of the Ottoman Empire from the perspective of the European observers and how the Ottomans and Europeans shaped each other’s histories. The encounter between the Ottomans and Europe were advanced in the 1400s by catholic bishops who crusaded against the Muslim Turks. When the Ottoman occupied Ontaro in Italy in 1480, many clergies crossed to Europe to preach and issue indulges with a plan to recruit soldiers to fight against the Turks. Although their campaign was not as successful, they managed to recruit some European religious and lay figures. The Ottomans responded by taking into captivity Christians across the Eastern and Mediterranean Europe and having them work as slaves. During the Renaissance, European writers, intellectuals and painters depicted the Ottomans with war, violence and conquest themes. Other artists concentrated on documenting the history of the emperor’s leaders. Building on these historical depictions, writers in Europe have also incorporated Ottoman characters in plays, operas and novels.  

How it contributes to this the research and lessons learned

This article examines the influence that Ottoman Empire had on modern European culture. It traces back the factors that facilitated the interaction between the Ottomans and Europe and how the effects from this interaction have been carried on for generations to influence some of the present cultures in Europe. It will help in answering the question on how the ancient Ottoman Empire influenced modern Europe. 

Ihsanoglu, E. (2007). Lessons from the Ottoman Empire. Sci Dev Net. Retrieved from  https://www.scidev.net/global/indigenous/opinion/lessons-from-the-ottoman-empire.html 

Summary

In this article, Ihsanoglu explains the lessons that the Ottoman learned from Europe. During the last 200 years before its fall, the rulers of the Ottoman Empire sought to acquire technology, education and management systems from Europe. However, they failed because their approach to technology transfer lacked the two important components of research and inquiry. Despite being fascinated by Europe’s military technology and education system which Ottomans tried to copy, they could not do so successfully because they did not incorporate inquiry and research.  

How it contributes to this the research and lessons learned

This article does not only point out to one of the exchanges between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, but also suggests one of the reasons that led to the fall of the Ottoman Empire- the flack of the two components that facilitates the adoption of new technology. 

Renda, G. (2005). The Ottoman Empire and Europe: Cultural Encounters. Cultural Encounters in Building a Universal Civilisation: Islamic Contributions, 2-24.

Summary

In his article “The Ottoman Empire and Europe: Cultural Encounters” (2005), Renda examines the cultural exchanges between Ottoman Empire and Europe. These two became neighbors on the Mediterranean and Balkans when the Ottoman expanded to the Central Europe. Cultural exchange was necessitated by the interactions between art patrons, traders, diplomatic and political leaders. Sultan Mehmed II was the most instrumental in the exchange of culture between the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Some of the cultural influences of the Ottoman Empire to the west were the spread of Turk’s images in European Art. Another important cultural exchange was the works of the famous cartographer, Peri Resis, who made a world map during the reign of Suleyman. Another artist was Haydar Reis who existed during Sultan Sulayman’s reign and who painted the two leading European Rulers, King Charles V and King Francois I. The growing relations between the Ottoman Empire and Europe in the 18th century led to architects and painters from Europe to visit the Ottoman Empire. These brought back paintings of the Ottoman Empire to Europe.

How it contributes to this the research and lessons learned

It is evident that the interaction between Ottoman Empire and Europe led to the exchange of rich content to both parts. This article provides information of the influence that Ottoman Empire had on Europe, which include art and architecture. It captures not only the cultural influences that the Ottoman Empire had in Europe, but also the influence of Europe’s culture on the Ottoman.

BBC. (2009). Ottoman Empire (1301-1922). BBC. Retrieved from  https://www.bbc.co.uk/ religion/religions/islam/history/ottomanempire_1.shtml 

Summary

           The article mainly highlights the various aspects that made the Ottoman Empire strong and successful over a long time. The empire is believed to have been highly centralized and the transfer of power was typically from one person to another, rather than splitting power between any rival leaders. The education and judicial systems in the empire were run by the state, while there was incorporation of Islam in the state structure. The Sultan was presumed to be the person spearheading the protection of Islam. Ruthlessness was exhibited when the state was handling matters concerning local leaders. Promotions to power were made based on merit. Moreover, the empire developed alliances across racial as well as political groups. The empire was entirely unified by Islamic ideology and expanded its territory through the application of the Islamic warrior code of Jihad. Further, the empire was believed to be highly pragmatic by acquiring helpful ideas from other cultures and applying them. The state controlled wealth and private power and had a powerful military that comprised of slave soldiers. The military had expertise regarding the development of gunpowder hence making it stronger and more powerful.

How it contributes to the overall understanding of this research

           The article expresses the various aspects of the Ottoman Empire that made it strong and successful over a long time. Such factors ranging from the powerful military, high centralization of power, and the unification by the Islamic ideology are major reasons behind the long-lasting success and strength exhibited by the empire. Other elements entailed pragmatism and state control over private wealth and power.

History.com Editors. (2019). Ottoman Empire. HISTORY: A&E Television Networks. Retrieved from  https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire  

Summary

           The article provides details concerning the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. From the 1600s, the empire appeared to be losing its military as well as economic dominance in Europe. At such a time, the continent had been increasingly strengthened by Renaissance and the early industrial revolution. The empire was further weakened by other aspects like trade competition from the Indians and Americans and poor leadership. In 1683, the empire lost the Battle of Vienna hence contributing to its further weakening. Over the next century, the empire started losing some of its significant regions. For instance, in 1830, Greece revolted and gained independence from the empire. Consequently, in 1878, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Romania earned their independence from a declaration by the Berlin Congress. In 1912 and 1913, when the Balkan Wars ensued, the empire lost almost all its European territories. The Ottoman Empire joined the 1st World War in 1914 where it fought alongside the Central Powers, including Austria-Hungary and Germany, but conceded defeat in 1918. A treaty was made subdividing the empire’s territories into Russia, Greece, Britain, and France. The official collapse of the empire occurred in 1922 hence the elimination of the Sultan title. In 1923, Turkey was made a republic. 

How the article contributes to the overall understanding of the topic  

           The article establishes some of the major factor that contributed towards the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. The empire had been strong for a very long time but poor leadership and renaissance and industrial revolution in Europe contributed towards its decline. The empire lost most of its significant territories hence becoming weaker. The Ottoman Empire was further weakened by the defeat during the 1st World War leading to its official decline in 1922.  

• Interpretation and Conclusion

Lessons learned from the research 

Based on the research questions, I learned important lessons as follows

What made the Ottoman Empire strong and successful for a long time? 

According to Fanani (2013), one of the factors for the success of the Ottoman Empire was the unification of the Christian and Muslims. The empire succeeded two empires that had widely varying characters and were constantly in conflict that led to their fall, namely, the Byzantine and Seljukian Empires. From the Seljukians and Byzantine, the Ottomans inherited Islamic and Christian territories respectively. On one side, the Ottoman Empire worked to unify the Muslims and on the other side to protect the Orthodox Christians. This became a principle for its governing institutions that help tokeep the territory together. The leading institutions also emphasized on being alert from foreign enemies. This was especially enabled by its strong military power that was known for conquering enemies (Fanani, 2013). The army did not only enable the empire to protect itself from external conquest, but also to expand its territories. The success in its military power can be illustrated by its three most successful military campaigns, namely, the Constantinople (May 29, 1453), conquest of Arab lands (1516-1517) and the European campaign of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566) that expanded the Ottoman Empire to major parts in Europe, Middle Eastern, Persian Gulf and Mediterranean (Fanani, 2013). 

What factors led to the fall of the Ottoman Empire? 

One of the factors for the fall of the Ottoman Empire was a decline in its leadership qualities of Suleyman’s successors (Fanani, 2013). None of the rulers that came after the death of Suleyman had military experience by the time they rose to power except Murad IV (1623-1640) who successfully commandeered the conquering of Caucus and Mesopotamia. However, he could not continue his success because he died early at the age of 31. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the emperors faced collusions from the Princess Mother who intrigued the Sultan policies. According to Evrensel and Minx (2017), power struggles among the Turks on who would become the next ruler weakened the leadership and disrupted the power structure. The denial of elite status to the Muslim Turks in favor of the ulema and janissaries who lacked an imperial decision-making power weakened the kingship. During the Asiatic culture, the Ottoman faced yet another challenge to its rule that resulted from its failure to match and compete with the rising Modern Europe as a result of its growth in military technology (Fanani, 2013). As Ihsanoglu (2017) notes, while the Ottoman Empire tried to copy different technologies from Europe, such as healthcare, medicine, mining and military, they lacked the qualities of technology transfer, that is, inquiry and research, so they could not match Europe’s technology. In addition, European merchants invaded the empire resulting into economic strains to the empire. Although the merchants benefited from the trade, it resulted to the decline of raw materials for domestic consumption and state revenues which made it difficult for the empire to keep up with the latest military technologies (Fanani, 2019; Evrensel & Minx, 2017). Instead of looking for solutions to solve the economic problems, the rulers ignored and instead continued to partner with the European merchants. 

How did the culture of Ottoman Empire and Europe influence each other? 

The cultural influences between the Ottoman Empire and Europe began when the Ottomans expanded to Central Europe. The most instrumental ruler in this exchange was Sultan Mehmed II who bought artifacts from Europe and even displayed them at the palace (Renda, 2005). The growing relations between the Ottoman Empire and Europe in the 18th century attracted architects and painters from Europe to visit the Ottoman Empire. These brought back paintings of the Ottoman Empire to Europe. Another factor that led to the influence of culture between the two was trade, ransom exchanged, manumission and religious conversions (Hajdarpasic, n.d). The slave trade where Ottomans took thousands of Christian Europeans as captives necessitated cultural exchange. During the Renaissance, the Ottomans were depicted by European writers, painters and intellectuals as people of war, violence and conquest. European painters also made visual depictions of the Ottoman rulers and incorporated Turkish characters into plays, operas, histories and novels (Hajdarpasic, n.d). On the flipside, the Ottoman Empire copied technology from Europe, but failed to transfer it due to its lack of research and inquiry (Ihsanoglu, 2017).

How what I learned have to do with themes, concepts or issues covered in class?

Europe, as we see it today, is a culmination of changes stemming for many years. Its current influences can be traced back from its interaction with ancient empires such as the Ottomans. Many of the present day regions of Europe were under the rule of the Ottoman. As explained above, the interaction between Europe and the Ottoman Empire influenced modern European cultures and economies in many fronts, such as, literature and writing, painting, poetry and film. 

Claims about my topic and the Geographies of the Western World more generally and limitations of my study.

The Ottoman Empire had a big influence on the civilization of the West. This was especially during the reign of Suleyman who was referred to by the rest of Europe as “The Magnificent”. The Ottoman Empire did not only impact the west through the transmission of goods, but also ideologically and through actual warfare. Despite that the west would emerge as a strong military power over the Ottoman due to the rise in technology, their rulers were much influenced by the power of the Ottoman rulers and the relationships that they had with their subjects. The influence of the Ottoman to the Islamic culture in Europe is phenomenal. For the many centuries when the Europeans talked about being in conflict with Islam, they referred to the influence of Turks on Islam in Europe, not Arabs. 

The limitation with this study is that there is no uniform agreement among scholars as to the major factors that led to the fall of the Ottoman Empire. Most scholars associate it to “a web of reasons” which makes it difficult to establish the major reasons that can be attributed to the Ottoman Empire’s fall. There is also scanty information on the influences of the Ottoman Empire to the modern Europe. Most of the available information point out on broad rather than specific themes on how the Ottoman influenced modern Europe.