The Structure of the San Rafael Swell

Utah is a very geologically diverse area, whose history can be traced back to the Precambrian Eon. The main area that will be focused on is the San Rafael Swell area in Central Utah. The San Rafael Swell is a regional N-S striking Laramide-style monocline, which likely formed during the latest Cretaceous to Eocene period (Sørensen, 2017). The San Rafael Swell has rocks exposed as old as the Permian period; however, the San Rafael Swell contains rocks older than the Permian period in its subsurface. The purpose of analyzing the structure of the San Rafael Swell is so a group of undergraduate students can gain experience in the field. Students will learn to identify the different rock types of the field area, as well as identify geological features of that area. Students will also analyze the tectonic movement at each point in time of the Utah landmass, and infer how said tectonic movement affected the deposition of each rock layer. The data collected will then be taken in order to create field observations in the specified research area.

Overall this report will cover the history of the San Rafael Swell area from the Precambrian Eon to the present day; this report will cover the stratigraphy and geological and tectonic history during each era. The basis for this report is a trip to southeastern Utah by a group of undergraduate students from DePauw University. The goal of this trip is for the students to gain field experiences out in a geologically diverse area. Students will learn to interpret rock types in the field area, as well as learn how to take field measurements (Wilkerson, 2020). Students will then compile their data to create written reports and geological maps. Due to the outbreak of COVID-19 in the United States, the students had to take different measures in order to acquire field data. Since all national parks shut down, programs such as Google Maps and Google VR simulated the field experience. These programs were the primary source of the collected data. Geological journals and literature provided most rock and outcrop interpretations.

The main research field is the San Rafael Swell, a geographical feature located on the Colorado Plateau, as outlined in the figure 1 map. The Colorado Plateau is an arid piece of continental crust whose regions are dissected by north-south trending faults (Foos, 1999). The Colorado Plateau is in the southwest region of the United States; it encompasses parts of Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona.

In order to understand the features of the San Rafael Swell, one must look back on the history of the area surrounding it. Sources indicate that the area known as Utah formed during the Hadean Eon (2.5 billion – 1.5 billion years ago) as a landmass of highly metamorphosed rock (McDermott, 2005). These metamorphic rocks formed on the supercontinent of Rodinia and became known as the basement. The metamorphic rock is believed to have originated in a marine depositional environment and is composed of highly metamorphosed granite and schist (Traxler, 2014). Although there are no exposed Precambrian outcrops in the field area, due to deep drilling in the surrounding areas, the basement layer was able to be identified. (Sprinkel et al.., 2000). Figures 2 and 3 show the Precambrian layer from areas in the vicinity of the San Rafael Swell. While it is important to remember that these figures are not from the research area, they are useful reference images to show what the basement of the San Rafael Swell most likely resembles.

In the Late Precambrian Eon, Rodinia would reach the end of its supercontinent cycle and began to drift apart. The main feature created due to the splitting of Rodinia was the Cordilleran Hingeline. The Cordilleran Hingeline was a cratonic margin that split apart the ancestral North American (Laurentia) landmass from west to east. The Cordilleran Hingeline was also responsible for the separation of the Utah landmass from Laurentia. (Picha & Gibson, 2005). As the landmasses separated, the ocean started to transgress and would cover the Utah landmass causing an increase in sediment deposition and the appearance of the first marine invertebrates,

During the Cambrian to Ordovician Periods of the early Paleozoic Era (540 to 480 million years ago), Utah became covered by a vast and shallow epicontinental sea that transgressed and regressed over large distances due to the low relief conditions of Laurentia at this time (Sørensen, 2017). The Tectonic activity of the Utah landmass in this period was relatively stable, up until the Devonian Period to Mississippian Period (420 to 350 million years ago). During this time frame, a subduction-related volcanic arc began to form west of Utah. The volcanic arc was the leading cause of Antler Orogeny, which caused a western source of sediments to become deposited in Utah (Sørensen, 2017). As noted in figure 4, the foreland basis created in Utah would be the precursor to future orogenies that would form during the later Paleozoic periods. 

The rock layer deposited from the Antler Orogeny would remain in the subsurface of the San Rafael Swell area, much like the basement, these rock layers were discovered by deep drilling in the surrounding areas. The collection of rocks came to be known as Undifferentiated Paleozoic. It consisted of multiple layers of interbedded sandstone and limestone, as well as carbonate rocks (Condon, 2000) The carbonate rocks mostly were of igneous origin due to the nearby volcanic arc, while both sandstone and limestone were of a shallow marine origin. 

At the start of the Pennsylvanian period (320 million years ago), another supercontinent cycle had concluded, and the Utah landmass was now a part of Pangea (Morris et al.., 2016). During the Permian period (240 million years ago), the plates Pangea collided with another supercontinent from the south. As the plates of the two supercontinents converged, two major basins formed, the Paradox and Oquirrh Basins (Tooker, 2004). As seen in figure 5, the Oquirrh Basin would accumulate sediment for the rest of the Paleozoic area, which would later become the Uinta uplift that would occur in the Cretaceous period.

During this event, the Uncompahgre Highlands also formed, on top of which the first exposed rock layer in the San Rafael Swell was deposited. This rock formation was the upper layer of the Cutler Group, known as the White Rim Sandstone. The formation creates a white band found along canyon rims where it is thin (Fig.6). The White Rim Sandstone is a cliff-forming rock consisting of fine to coarse-grained sandstone (Condon, 1997). This sandstone commonly displays high-angle cross-beds (dipping sediment layers) deposited by wind-blown dunes. The thickness of this formation ranges from 5 to 75 feet thick in the San Rafael Swell (Morris, 2003). The depositional environment of the White Rim Sandstone was a coastal dune caused by the regression of the shallow sea. (Komola and Chan, 1988)

The White Rim Sandstone was initially thought to be eolian, due to the high angle cross-bedding and rounded grains. (Fig 7). After a closer examination of the area, oscillating ripples were found in the quartz sand grains indicating that the deposition might have been marine (Sprinkel et al.., 2000). This was due to the fact that the shallow sea transgressed and regressed multiple times during this era, thus mixing with the sediment and changing its composition. 

The last layer deposited during the Paleozoic period is the Kaibab Formation. The Kaibab Formation is composed of impure cherty limestone and dolomite, with a regional unconformity on the White Rim Sandstone below it. (Mathis, 2000). The Kaibab rocks range in color from gray, buff, and brown, to yellow/brown dolomite (Fig 8). The depositional environment for the Kaibab Formation was a shallow marine shelf deposit, due to the eastward transgression of the Kaibab Sea (Condon, 1997). The limestone is fossiliferous and contains invertebrate fossils such as brachiopods. (Condon, 2000). The hand specimen of the limestone layer seems to be loosely cemented, exhibits angular grains, and are poorly sorted. The specimen also exhibits low sphericity in its grains and imprints where fossils would have been.  Kaibab Formation outcrops have planar bedding (Fig. 9) , and has interbedded layers of dolomite and limestone.

During the early Mesozoic Era, Pangea existed well into the early Triassic period (250 million years ago) but would split into two landmasses. The two landmasses created were Gowanda and Laurasia. Utah was again covered by a shallow sea and situated on the western edge of the ancestral North America Continent (Morris et al.., 2016). The Moenkopi Formation was the first sediment layer to be deposited during this time. The Moenkopi Formation displays ancient tidal and nearshore deposits. The Moenkopi Formation typically contains abundant thinly bedded mudstones and sandstones (Fig 10) with a large variety of ripple marks (Fig 9). The sandstone in the Moenkopi Formation is gypsiferous and fine-grained, which indicates marine depositional aspects since gypsum is a relevantly high solubility (University of Utah, 2010). The fine-grained sand also points to a marine environment, but the ripple marks on the rocks lean more towards that of rivers or channels. It is more than likely that these layers were deposited in a fluvial environment. The mudstones in this formation also seem to display some ripples; these markings likely came from slow-moving rivers. Thus, the layers of the Moenkopi Formation originate from shallow marine to fluvial environments. 

Above the Moenkopi Formation lies the Chinle Formation. The contact between these two formations is an angular unconformity due to local erosion. The Uncompahgre Highlands caused the deposition of the Chinle formation through volcanic subduction from the east (Prochnow et al., 2006). Sandstone structure in the Chinle Formation cross-beds, and some horizontal laminations. The sandstone grades laterally into siltstone and mudstone lenses which contain organic carbon fragments as well as carbonized plant fossils (Dubiel, 1987). The Shinarump Conglomerate is a coarse-grained conglomeratic sandstone that represents a widespread fluvial deposition and is uranium rich (University of Utah, 2010). The Chinle Formation is also known for petrified wood embedded in the lower layers of the formation (Sprinkel et al.. 2000). The uranium in the Shinarump Conglomerate gives it a sort of badlands topography (Fig 11) (Sprinkel et al.., 2000). The Chinle Formation was most likely deposited in a Non-marine fluvial environment (University of Utah, 2010).

Above the Moenkopi Formation lies the Chinle Formation. The contact between these two formations is an angular unconformity due to local erosion. The Uncompahgre Highlands caused the deposition of the Chinle formation through volcanic subduction from the east (Prochnow et al., 2006). Sandstone structure in the Chinle Formation cross-beds, and some horizontal laminations. The sandstone grades laterally into siltstone and mudstone lenses which contain organic carbon fragments as well as carbonized plant fossils (Dubiel, 1987). The Shinarump Conglomerate is a coarse-grained conglomeratic sandstone that represents a widespread fluvial deposition and is uranium rich (University of Utah, 2010). The Chinle Formation is also known for petrified wood embedded in the lower layers of the formation (Sprinkel et al.. 2000). The uranium in the Shinarump Conglomerate gives it a sort of badlands topography (Fig 11) (Sprinkel et al.., 2000). The Chinle Formation was most likely deposited in a Non-marine fluvial environment (University of Utah, 2010).

The Jurassic period (200 million years ago) saw a drastic change, as the transition for a wet marine environment to interchanging arid eolian and fluvial environments spawned a new fossil in the formations. (University of Utah, 2010). The sea that once covered the Utah landmass had now completely regressed, and this period saw a switch from marine to eolian environments (Hawley et al.., 1968). The first of these layers is the Wingate Sandstone. The Wingate is a massive cliff former that overlies the Chinle Formation, separated by an erosional unconformity. It is the start of the Glen Canyon group of the Jurassic period. The Wingate can be distinguished by its desert varnish. The sandstone is highly cross stratified and contains wind rippled strata in some areas of the swell (Fig 13). The Wingate is well exposed in the area and is relatively homogeneous throughout the area (Sprinkel et al.., 2000). The Wingate Sandstone averages around 300 to 360 feet in thickness in San Rafael Swell (Morris, 2003). The sandstone contains quartz and feldspar and is well cemented. The grains are frosted, sub-rounded to rounded with high sphericity. The grains are well sorted, and sandstone is also calcareous and siliceous (Fig 14). Frosted grains in sandstone are a clear indication that the depositional environment was eolian or wind-blown. Furthermore, due to the desert varnish on the rock, it was likely that the climate was very dry and arid when the Wingate was deposited atop the Chinle. 

Once the Wingate Sandstone was deposited, the Utah landmass would experience a switch in the environment, as the Kayenta Formation would be deposited in a Fluvial environment. The Wingate Sandstone is below the Kayenta Formation, while the Navajo Sandstone is above it. The Kayenta Formation is about 350 feet thick and range in color from red to brown (Mathis, 2000). The Kayenta Formation is composed of sandstones, siltstones, and conglomerates that alternate (Bates et al., 1984). The fluvial facies the Kayenta Formation displays make it easy to distinguish from its counterparts (Fig 15). The sample of the Kayenta Formation displays a tabular shape, and small-scale cross-bedding (Fig 16). The small-scale crossbedding is another way to distinguish the formation from the eolian deposited formations (Sørensen, 2017).

The Navajo Sandstone then alternated back to an eolian depositional environment. A return to massive cliff-forming rocks is seen in the first of the Glen Canyon formations. The Navajo sandstone is upwards of 600 ft thick (Mathis, 2000). Weathering of the Navajo creates well-rounded white mounds above the Kayenta Formation, whose contact is gradational (Fig 17). Navajo Sandstone is well exposed in the swell area and displays large-scale cross-beds (Kocurek and Dott, 1983). The Navajo is an arenite sandstone with frosted quartz grains. The sandstone is composed mainly of silicate minerals and is well cemented and well sorted. Clast size for the Navajo ranges from fine (1/8 mm – 1⁄4 mm) to very fine (1/16 mm – 1/8 mm), and the grains are well rounded (Fig 18). The specimen's grains have high sphericity, and the overall specimen exhibits a cross-bedded structure (University of Utah, 2010).

During Middle to Late Jurassic, a long and shallow sea extended into the western part of Utah. This sea had frequent and short-lived sea-level fluctuations causing flooding in the eastern part of Utah (Williams et al., 2014). The rest of the Mesozoic would alternate between being covered in a shallow sea, or an arid desert.

The Jurassic period continues with the start of the San Rafael Group, the Carmel Formation overlies the Navajo with a J-2 Unconformity, a regional unconformity (Fischer & Christensen, 2004). The Jurassic period continues with the start of the San Rafael Group, the Carmel group that overlies the Navajo with a J-2 Unconformity, which a regional unconformity. The Carmel is split up into two main members, the Page Sandstone and the Dewey Bridge Member. The bedding in the Page Sandstone is mainly parallel and can only reach about 100 feet in thickness in the San Rafael Swell area (Morris, 2000). The beds range from white to light gray in color and have some form of cross-stratification (Fig 19). The Dewey Bridge Member was at first thought it is its separate layer, but some geologists say it the same as the regular Carmel Formation, as its beds are continuous in surrounding areas (Sprinkel et al.., 2000). The formation consists of mudstones, white limestones, and brown siltstones. These layers create distinct bedding on the formation, and this half of the Carmel is around 250 –300 feet thick (Morris, 2000). 

The Page Sandstone is composed mainly of very fine-grained to medium-grained sandstone that includes weathered feldspar, and dark minerals. The grains are sub-angular to well rounded, and the well-rounded grains have frosted surfaces (Fig 20). The Dewey Bridge member of the formation is made of gypsum, is poorly cemented, and has sub-angular grains with low sphericity (University of Utah, 2010).

The middle member of the San Rafael Group, the Entrada Sandstone, is much like the Navajo Sandstone in that it is a massive cliff former. A difference is the Slick Rock Member has an irregular, but sharp contact with the Carmel Formation. The Slick Rock Member is sandstone with only minor cross-stratification, as well as having the attribute of being an arch forming layer (Sprinkel et al..,2000). The rest of the Entrada is a massive large cross stratified sandstone interbedded with some layers of shale (Fig 21). In the San Rafael Swell, Slick Rock and Entrada are well exposed and around 300-400 feet thick (Morris, 2000). The Entrada specimen is made up of iron oxide giving in that reddish hue. The grains round and angular grains (Fig 22). The clast sizes range from fine to very fine, and the grains have high sphericity (University of Utah, 2010).   

 The penultimate member of the San Rafael Group is the Curtis Formation. The Curtis Formation’s deposition was in a craton margin basin that drifted north (Kocurek & Dott, 1983). The Curtis Formation overlies the Entrada with a J-3 angular unconformity, a regional surface of erosion (University of Utah, 2010). The Curtis Formation is around 100- 250 feet thick in the San Rafael Swell area (Morris, 2000). The sandstone of the Curtis Formation is resistant, while the rest of the Curtis beds are thin-bedded silty sandstone and shale (Fig 23). The sandstones in the Curtis Formation are well cemented glauconitic sandstones, that range from being medium to coarse-grained. They exhibit planar features and include some varieties of quartz. (Sprinkel et al.., 2000) (Fig 24).

 The final layer in the San Rafael Group is the Summerville Formation. The Summerville formation consists of alternating siltstone and mudstone layers that are red to brown in tint. They also have alternating grayish sandstone and limestone layers (University of Utah, 2010). Figure 25 displays the parallel bedding of the Summerville Formation. The facies on display indicate that this layer was deposited in a tidal marine environment. 

In the Late Cretaceous period, a tectonic plate called the Farallon Plate began to subduct into the North American Plate, which caused many mountain ranges to form( Fig 26). The Farallon plate hitting the North American plate caused the reactivation of Precambrian to Paleozoic faults (Davis & Bump, 2003). This reactivation uplifted some Precambrian basement rock to the surface, and exposing salt domes that were created by the Uncompahgre uplift. The late Mesozoic Era also saw the beginning formations of some of Utah’s national parks, such as the Water Pocket Fold in Capitol Reef, and the formation of the San Rafael Swell. (Sprinkel et al.., 2000). The folding of layers created the Laramide Orogeny. The geological events during this era would be the start of the creation of a separate continental crust that would cover the research area.

While the two plates were subducting, rock layers of the San Rafael Swell continued to form. The Morrison Formation is split into three parts, the first part being the Tidwell Formation. The Tidwell formation is only around 60 ft thick in the swell area, and is Calcareous, consisting of mostly red to white weathering siltstone (Fig 27). The next member is the Salt Wash Member, which is 200 to 300 feet thick in the area (Morris, 2000). This unit is a bench and cliff-forming unit of sandstone and muddy siltstone. Up next is the Brushy Basin Member that is around 250 to 400 ft thick and is dominated by mudstone. The sandstone in the Salt wash is fine to coarse-grained and cross-bedded.(Morris, 2000). Similarly, in the Brushy Basin, the sandstone layers are cross-bedded, coarse sand grains. With many similarities between these members, specifically in the sandstone, it can be inferred that the depositional environment in this formation is fluvial. Also, with the little differentiation between the members in terms of bedding, it can be said that laid flat over river systems. 

 The Cedar Mountain Formation is around 100-420 feet thick in the San Rafael Swell area (Morris, 2000). It is a slope forming rock, comprised of weathering siltstone and sandstone. This formation also consists of freshwater fossils such as such fish scales (Sprinkel et al., 2000). Using the fossils to point out the depositional environment of each layer, the consensus is that since the Cedar Mountain Formation has freshwater fossils, it was deposited in a fluvial setting, after the last Jurassic sea had regressed.

Deposited during the late Cretaceous period, there are three main members that the Mancos Shale can break down into: The Tununk Member, the Juana Lopez Member, and the Blue Gate Shale. The Lower most member is the Tununk Member and depending on your source is 400 to 700 feet thick in the San Rafael Swell area (Morris, 2000). The Tununk Member is a slope forming blue shale that contains some marine fossils. The Juana Lopez Member is, again depending on your sources, can range anywhere between 150 to 400 feet (Morris, 2000). The sandstone contains ripple marks along with low angle stratification. The upper most layer of the Mancos exposed in the San Rafael Swell is the Blue Gate shale that can reach upwards of 1500+ thickness. The shale here also contains an assortment of marine fossils (Hawley et al.., 1968).

Sixty-six million years ago, the Cenozoic Era began. The sea that surrounded Utah had regressed almost entirely during this time, so the depositional environment was dominated by non-marine fluvial deposits (Davis & Bump,2003). The Laramide Orogeny extended into this period, which meant the Farallon was still active. The Farallon plate was the catalyst for the high amount of volcanic activity during this period. (Morris et al., 2016). The ice age also occurred during this time and left massive blankets of glacial ice. This was also when the first humans appeared on the Utah landmass. After the glacial ice had melted, it left behind a massive lake known as Lake Bonneville. Lake Bonneville contained a high amount of salt grains, and would later shrink in size become the Great Salt Lake that is in present-day Utah (Morris et al., 2016).

Figure 31 outlines all the contacts for the research area. The field area also contains a meandering stream that is a primary reason for modern-day erosion

As seen in Figure 32, the picture is a screen capture from the research area on Google Earth. The formation seen creates hogbacks, which are a series of hills with a narrow crest and steep slopes of nearly equal inclination on both flanks (Sprinkel, et al, 2000). The hogback creates a north-south trending anticline, this anticline makes up part of the San Rafael Reef. The San Rafael Swell is comprised of titled layers of Navajo and Wingate Sandstone.

Moreover, Figure 33 highlights Interstate 70 that cuts through the San Rafael Reef. The creation of the Interstate also created various slot canyons in the vicinity (Utah Geological Survey, 2019).

·     Abstract

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