Uranium in Africa

The two main methods of extracting uranium are open-pit/underground & In-Situ-Leaching (ISL).

Open-pit/underground mining

• Drilling, shoveling, and blasting is used in order to get the ore to the surface. The ore is ground up into a powder. Then, it's treated with either acid or leach in order to separate uranium from the rest of the rock, and after it has dried it becomes yellowcake (University of Basel, 2010).

In-Situ-Leaching (ISL)

• A solution which separates uranium from the surrounding rock is injected into the ground. Another tube brings in the uranium to the surface, and then it is converted into yellowcake (University of Basel, 2010).

The radioactive components of uranium were discovered in the late 1800s. But it wasn't until 1938 that uranium fission was invented, which is what makes the atomic bomb function. Large-scale uranium mining began as a result of the discovery of the atomic bomb. Shortly after, scientists discovered that uranium can be utilized as a source of power, through nuclear reactors (Becquerel, Curie, Groves, and Sengier, 2018).

In the early stages of nuclear power, uranium was mined in Europe and the US. Uranium mining has switched to the developing world, specifically Kazakstan and several African countries. However, it still occurs in a few Western countries, but ones that have low population densities near the mines such as Canada and Australia (Winde, 2016).

Health Risks

Uranium mining poses major health risks and most African countries lack health restrictions that developed countries have.

• Open-pit/underground miners are exposed to radioactive materials and dust that causes lung cancer and other lung diseases (NIOSH, 2000). ISL mining contaminates nearby groundwater and soil (University of Basel, 2010).

• Lack of health restriction and framework in African countries allows companies to mine uranium and at a very low cost (University of Basel, 2010).

Economy

Many African countries are welcoming of uranium mining because it brings foreign investments.

• Because many countries are eager to receive foreign investment, application times are shorter for building mines than in Western countries. For example, Greenfield Kayelekera mine in Malawi was approved in 3 years, while mines in Australia take 10+ years to get approved (Winde, 2016).

• Foreign-investments from mines make up a large portion of national budgets, for many countries and some countries even compete for mines to be built, so they give mining corporations tax breaks. (Winde, 2016).

• The African continent brings 20%+ profit margins for uranium mines (Winde, 2016).
• It's important to note the economic situation of Africa is due to years of colonialism and neocolonialism.

Geology

Simpler Geology

• In the Great Karoo region of South Africa, Tanzania, and other regions throughout Africa, the land is made up of mostly sandstone. Sandstone material makes uranium extraction easier, therefore cheaper for corporations (Winde, 2016).

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Uranium mining in Africa started in the 1940s in the Belgian Congo in order to retrieve Uranium for the Manhattan Project (production of nuclear weapons in the US) (Winde, 2016). The Shinkolobwe Mine, located in the Southeastern region. was owned by the Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, which was a English and Belgian company. It was the primary mine in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The uranium here was considered so pure, that it had 60x more usability than uranium from the average uranium mine (Becquerel, Curie, Groves, and Sengier, 2018). However, running the mine and transporting the uranium to the coast became too costly so by 1960, the mines were no longer needed and became more about protecting it from the Soviets than extracting uranium; in 2004, it was officially shut down (Becquerel, Curie, Groves, and Sengier, 2018).

The human effects of this specific mine have been hidden and no records of conditions within the mine were kept. Illegal mining still occurs in this area, but for copper and cobalt (Becquerel, Curie, Groves, and Sengier, 2018). The deposition from the mines is constantly being let into the atmosphere and environment to this day, even after the mining stopped. (Becquerel, Curie, Groves, and Sengier, 2018).

Gabon

In the 1960s, the French company that is now Areva began mining uranium in Gabon. The Mounana mine in the southeastern region, provided France with uranium for its nuclear power plants and their nuclear weapons program and became a huge exporter of uranium by several other companies (Wise Uranium, 2005). The Oklo mine, which is also located in southeastern Gabon, supplied about half the uranium the Mounana mine did (World Nuclear Association, 2020) and is the world's only known natural nuclear reactor (Winde, 2016). In 1999, the mines were shut down to to lack of economic reserves ("Nuclear Risk", n.d.).

The untreated mill was released into the Ngamaboungou creek, and eventually contaminated the Mitembe river and released radioactive dust into the environment. After it was shut down, the toxin levels in the water has decreased, but there are still extreme environmental impacts from this mine due to the "practice of intentionally releasing tailings into the environment for 15 years" (Wise Uranium, 2005).

"COMUF calculated that residents crossing the valley to reach their plantations have been receiving radiation doses between 2.3 and 2.9 mSv per year." - Wise Uranium, 2005

Niger

Uranium mining in Niger began in the late 1960s by their former colonial power, France (Volberdinga and Warner, 2017). From this point, mining continued and still does to this day. The mines are owned by Areva. In 2015, Niger was the fourth largest producer of uranium (Volberdinga and Warner, 2017). The uranium from the two major Nigerien mines: Arlit and Azelik supply power to France and other European countries (Deuxieme Paris, 2004) and 1/3 of France's electricity comes from Niger alone (Diouara and Destrijcker, 2017). The Arlit mine offered economic incentives for mine workers which drew in people from surrounding countries. But due the unsafe working conditions, many workers developed asthma and lung cancer (Deuxieme Paris, 2004) One miner who was interviewed said he would witness two people die a day (Deuxieme Paris, 2004).

Although Niger's resources are so vital and valuable, it remains one of the poorest countries in the world. According to Warner and Volberdinga (2017), this is due to the unique political economy of uranium that includes: “strict international regulation, non-transparent uranium pricing markets, limited supply and demand, constrained global supply chains, and lack of domestic usage.” (Volberdinga and Warner, 2017, p. 297).

Namibia

Rössing Uranium company was created in 1970. In 1976, it was the first commercial uranium mine in Namibia. This company is owned nearly 70% by China with the rest being Iran, South Africa, and Namibia (World Nuclear Association, 2020). The Husab mine, constructed in 2013, is the newest mine in the country. It is owned almost entirely by China. Both of these mines have been functional since their openings, but in March of this year operations were suspended due to COVID-19 (World Nuclear Association, 2020).

Despite costing more to operate than Australian and Canadian mines, most Namibian mines are being kept alive due to Chinese investment and Namibia was projected to be the second largest uranium producer in 2020. (DeBoom, 2017). Although Namibia as a whole is economically benefitting from these mines, the placement of them and this same economic growth has at the same time led to marginalized minorities (DeBoom, 2017) which is a colonial effect of China's influence.

South Africa

Uranium mining started as a by-product of gold and other mineral mining in South Africa (Umejesi and Issah, 2018). There are two mines: Ezulwini-Cooke and Vaal River. They are located in the Northwest region near Johannesburg. English owned gold companies started mining uranium as well as gold in the Johannesburg region, in the late 1960s and continue to this day, some have been put on hold due to COVID-19 (World Nuclear Association, 2020). There are 400 tailings dams in the Gauteng province alone and there is tons of heavy metal and radioactive pollution from these dams (World Nuclear Association, 2020).

There are several other regions in South Africa proposed to have uranium mines, one of which is the Great Karoo region being researched by an Australian mining company.

Malawi

The Kayelekera mine, 100% owned by Paladin Energy an Australian company gained approval from the Malawian government in 2000 and began construction in 2005 (Wilde, 2010). At the time, it employed 75% Malawi nationals (Wilde, 2010). Extraction began in 2008, and still continues to this day. However, large amounts of radioactive material and tailing are being discarded into the plateau and the water. There is a high uranium concentration in the water flowing into the SERE River. All of these environmental impacts have been unacknowledged by the government and the Paladin Energy (Chareyron, 2012).

Mali

The Falea deposits, located in southwestern Mali, were first explored in the 1970s and are now owned by GoviEx Uranium, a Canadian company (World Nuclear Association, 2020). However, only 5% of the area has been examined (Freeman, 2014). These deposits are unique because they also contain silver and copper. In order to recover all three minerals, a different method is needed, and has yet to be decided on. One option is "Acid leach the ore to recover uranium / flotation of leach residue to recover sulphide concentrate, treatment of concentrate for Cu and Ag recovery" (Freeman, 2014, p. 98). According to the World Nuclear Association (2020), a "pre-feasibility study" is anticipated to occur in Falea region after 2020.

Tanzania

Tanzania is one of the most sought out places for uranium mining and multiple areas are being researched by many different companies, but no actual mining has taken place. The Mkuju River project is one of the major deposits. It was started by Uranium One, a Canadian Company.(World Nuclear Association, 2020). Uranex, an Australian company, has been exploring Manyoni which is located in the center of the country and the Mtonya project in the southwestern region. Most of these deposits were intended to start mining in 2013, but have been put on hold due to low uranium prices (World Nuclear Association, 2020). According to the Environmental Justice Atlas (2018), the Tanzanian government accepted uranium mines to increase economic development. However, the environmental and health risks are too large for the government to handle.

Karl Marx: Labor, Accumulation, and Crisis

Uranium mining is, without a doubt, a capitalistic industry. The environment and people are both exploited in order to provide energy and capital to corporations and governments. Not only are people's labor exploited, but their health is as well. Open-pit mining exposes workers to radioactive chemicals and heavy metals which causes lung cancer, asthma, and even death. According to Marx this is a product of capitalism, when corporations profit directly off human labor. These corporations are also profiting from uranium, which is a commodity, an object of economic value bought and sold on the market. The large amount of equipment necessary to conduct uranium mining, is part of the means of production according to Marx. Surplus value is the value brought to corporation and investors when their employees are underpaid. This can be witnessed in all uranium mines, but especially in Arlit, where the Areva and the government is profiting off the denial of health concerns raised by the mine workers.

Environments as Hazard

A hazard is anything that is a threat to humans. Risk is the high probability that a hazard will effect a group of people. Whether open-pit or ISL mining, both pose very serious environmental concerns that inevitably affect humans. The radioactive dust lifted from the ground as open-pit mining occurs, is a hazard to humans and other animals. ISL mining introduces liquid chemicals into the ground which are also hazards and contaminates soil and water of the surrounding areas.

Risk Perception

As the Great Karoo region of South Africa is preparing for mining, there are economic, environmental, and cultural risks tied to it and many groups are opposing it. One study by the University of Fort Hare, analyzes the risk perception of different social groups in this region. The four groups studied were the small farmers, environmental advocacy groups, Karretjie, and members of the DMR (Department of Mineral Resources). The study found that small and commercial farmers were concerned the mine would disrupt agriculture, and displayed a conservative approach to environmental management because they wanted to reduce the impacts on nature. Tour operators, archeologists, retired people, etc. believed in a preservative approach, due to the concerns that mines would drive away tourism. Karretjie people (indigneous people of Karoo) had a socio cultural perception initially, but it has changed to industrial perception due to high unemployment and the employment opportunities of the mine. Government officials had an economical and industrial approach in terms of risk perception, due to potential economic benefits of the mine (Umejesi and Issah, 2018).

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