Eastside Churches in the Civil Rights Movement
Religion, Power, and the Need for Change
"[Young people] need to know what has happened in the past - the abuses and the struggles and the progress that has been made, the sacrifices that people have made to get to the point where we are now." - Ethel Minor
Where did the Civil Rights Movement happen?
You may have heard of Rosa Parks bravely standing her ground in Montgomery, Alabama, the 1963 March on Washington, D.C., and the Little Rock Five risking their lives for a better education in Little Rock, Arkansas, but did you know that San Antonio, Texas also played a role in the Civil Rights Movement? The battle for justice and equality happened all over the nation, and mobilized thousands of people in the fight to end segregation, racism, and inequal opportunity.
What did that look like in San Antonio?
The people of San Antonio fought and experienced the fight for equality from a variety of perspectives. Mexican American Rights activism is often at the forefront of our conversations about Civil Rights in San Antonio, partly due to demographics. While San Antonio is a majority Mexican Americans and Latinos, African American Civil Rights activism played a significant role in San Antonio's history. This project explores the Civil Rights movement through the lens of religious institutions on the Eastside of San Antonio, a historically black section of the city.
Why discuss religious institutions?
The church has always been a significant institution among African American communities across America. Inside the church, African Americans could exercise authority, organize their community, explore the arts, become educated, and support one another. Before the Civil Rights movement, the dominant Anglo society denied blacks these liberties in the public square. The church became a center for African American civil society, transcending its use as a place of worship. As a result, many Civil Rights activists were deeply involved with the church. This concept will be explored further in the section "Historic Churches."
A Growing Need for Change
Following the Civil War, in the time known as Reconstruction (1865-1867) African Americans left the plantations seeking to find their place in society. In response to the influx of newly freed blacks, city leaders in the south enacted laws and policies to exclude and limit where blacks could go as they explored their new status. San Antonio was no exception, and residential discrimination played a large role in the black dispersion through the city. For example, Empire Realty sold new homes to whites in newly developed subdivisions, and then sold the old homes to blacks. Often the new subdivisions were “restricted to whites only" as you can see in the example below.
Title restriction for a home built in 1948. Courtesy of Jerry Poyo, former homeowner.
African Americans would later develop their own neighborhoods as whites moved to better parts of the city, away from the pollution of the expanding railroad, factories and mills. Before the Civil War many blacks lived in shacks along the San Antonio River, but as whites vacated the area, blacks moved in and by 1870 blacks had two distinct neighborhoods of their own. African Americans typically moved closer to the job opportunities and closer to where other African Americans resided. Between 1875 and 1880, as blacks moved further east in San Antonio, there was a sudden rise in church building. So many Baptist churches were built on that side of town that the area became known as the "Baptist Settlement," and it's here that a small number of blacks in San Antonio grew into the tight knit community in an area known today as the "Eastside." A similar community grew on the Westside of the city anchored by the St. James African Methodist Church,which was founded in 1868. The unity developed among the African American in San Antonio would create a small but very audible voice and help shape San Antonio into the city it is today.
San Antonio's Leaders
[Men at Anti-Kruggerard Campaign], photograph, 1976 From left to right: Rick Marshall Green, Mario Marcel Salas, Reverend Claude W. Black of Mt. Zion First Baptist Church, Leon Green (Rick's father), and Tommy (T. C.) Calvert. Courtesy of UNT Libraries
Among the generations that took part in San Antonio's battle for African American Civil Rights, many leading activists emerged from pre-existing hierarchies in the church community.
Many church leaders became leaders and advocates in a variety of organizations. The organizations that had an impact on San Antonio's history include the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), Mexican American Youth Organization (MAYO), and many others. While they didn't always agree on the methods, these organizations strived towards many of the same goals: equality, dignity, and freedom from institutional oppression.
Among these groups, many leaders were either clergymen, or active members within the church. These are a small sampling of leaders that made an impact on San Antonio's history, though many impactful people of the past go without recognition.
Reverend Claude William Black Jr. and Zer Nona M. Black
Rev. Claude Black was born on November 28, 1916 in San Antonio, Texas, son of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters vice president, Claude Sr. He attended Andover Newton Theological School, and in 1949 he became a pastor at Mt. Zion First Baptist Church, serving until 1998, almost 50 years.
During his time in San Antonio, Rev. Black was involved with many Civil Rights organizations, including the SNCC, Baptist Minister's Union, and Social Actions Committee. He was involved in city government, serving on the city council 1973-1978, and as the city's first black Mayor Pro Tempore.
His efforts to liberate San Antonio's African American community were often met with violence and hostility, receiving threats to his life, his family and his congregation. A few of these threats were followed by action, including a drive-by shooting at the Reverend's home, and arson, which burned down Mt. Zion church in 1974.
Photo Courtesy of University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries Special Collections.
Zer Nona Black likewise served the city of San Antonio as a teacher and fellow activist alongside Rev. Claude. Mrs. Black was born in 1912, on February 2nd. She graduated from Emerson College in Boston and began teaching a variety of subjects at Langston College in Oklahoma before coming to teach at St. Phillip's College in San Antonio.
Though Claude took the lead in terms of ministry, Zer Nona's organizational skills were an invaluable asset to Mt. Zion during her years as First Lady of the church. She founded several centers for child and senior care, which massively impacted the Eastside community. To the right is a plaque from Sunday Smith, celebrating Zer Nona's retirement, courtesy of Trinity University Coates Library.
Garlington Jerome Sutton
Sutton was born in San Antonio on June 22, 1909, and attended Wiley College, Wilberforce University, and Cincinnati College, before becoming a mortician and eventual politician. He was elected to the San Antonio Union Junior College District board of trustees in 1948 and began fighting for resources to aid schools on the Eastside, which typically received less funding and poorer resources.
In 1972, he became the first black state representative of District 57-E, vowing to serve the neglected citizens of his city. He was a lifelong member and trustee of Second Baptist Church.
Photo courtesy of UNT Library.
Valmo Charles Bellinger
Valmo Bellinger was born October 12, 1899 in Lockhart, Texas to Celestine Bellinger and the political boss Charles Bellinger, who was Valmo's father. The family moved to San Antonio in 1905, and from there became one of the most influential political families in the region.
Unlike many other leaders of San Antonio's black community, V. Bellinger was a devout Catholic, and attended primarily Catholic schools during his youth, including St. Peter Claver Junior High School, which was the first Catholic school for African Americans in Texas.
One of his greatest achievements was the foundation of the San Antonio Register, which grew to be the largest African American owned newspaper in the San Antonio area. He and his father united black voters to exercise power as a community, and jumpstart political change in San Antonio's government. The act of uniting voters by demographic is considered "machine politics," the leaders of these groups dubbed "political bosses." Though the Bellingers took part in this system, Valmo Bellinger predicted that this sort of political organization would soon end.
Ethel Minor
Ethel Minor was born in San Antonio on November 26, 1922 and spent the first part of her life in Columbus, Texas. She was educated at Prairie View A&M University, and later at St. Mary's University in San Antonio. In 1944, she took up work at Kelly Airforce Base, and battled for equal rights among employees. She became the Equal Employment Opportunity officer at the base, ensuring equal rights and protections for people of all races.
Alongside many other leaders, Minor coordinated and participated in marches and demonstrations in San Antonio. She worked for 14 years as the secretary of Antioch Missionary Baptist Church, and with the sitting reverend's encouragement, she ran for president of the local NAACP branch. She remained the president of San Antonio's NAACP for 10 years, from 1986 to 1996. Though she stepped down in 1996, Minor remained an active part of the NAACP until her death.
Historic Churches
African American churches throughout history have served as community centers and a socio-religious force that helped shape the Civil Rights movement. The history of these black churches can be traced back to slavery. Many slaveholders encouraged enslaved people to attend church services where preachers would admonish them with scriptures to “obey thy masters” and implore their obedience to the slaveholders as one would obey God. Through this obedience they would allegedly receive a heavenly reward. Sunday was also typically a day of rest for many plantations, so church services offered a brief reprieve from the painful labor.
Over time, slaves became literate and interpreted the Bible for themselves and black preachers would hold church services of their own if the slave owners allowed. While slave holders observed, the preacher would deliver stories of obedience to the master, but when the slave holders were not present the messages were stories of Moses and God providing freedom. This began to offer new hope for slaves. Churches acted as centers of rebellion with encoded messages in sermons and songs providing information to help slaves escape to freedom. Following the Civil War and subsequent emancipation African American churches offered refuge from oppression, spiritual guidance while simultaneously focusing on the political concerns of the black community.
Mount Zion Baptist Church, 200 block Santos Street, San Antonio, Texas. Image circa 1905, before the 1975 burning. Courtesy of UTSA Digital Collections.
However, emancipation also elicited fear of blacks attending the white churches. During slavery, slave owners brought their servants to services, but after emancipation white churches became obsessed with keeping blacks out. It was this resentment and threat of violence that encouraged African Americans to create institutions of their own. This desire for segregation led the white Methodist Episcopal Church to provide the building that would later become St. Paul Methodist Church. This particular project focuses on 3 churches but be certain that were many other African American churches that were established between 1866-1960 that performed similarly roles. With assistance from the Freedmen’s Bureau, many African Americans built their own churches from the ground up and many of them still stand as testaments and symbols of pride and self-determination.
The threat of violence was also very real, as Mt. Zion First Baptist church was set ablaze twice in 1890 and completely destroyed by arson in 1974. Even in the face of danger, churches were cultural and political centers for the African American community. It remained a place where congregations could organize their votes, their protests and maintain the spiritual strength and guidance needed to carve out a place in San Antonio and America.
St. Paul's Methodist Church
Established in 1866 by freedmen and former slaves St. Paul Methodist Church is the oldest African American church still in existence in San Antonio. The church played an active role in civil rights for blacks, with leaders like Rev. Matthew “Mack” Henson leading the fight for equality. In 1884, Henson gave a speech encouraging blacks to vote for the best candidate instead of a political party. He also inspired and organized his congregation to take up active roles in the early Civil Rights movement.
In 1914, St. Paul and other churches also partnered with John Grumble of the NAACP and provided jobs for the community. The places of employment included work on military bases like Camp Travis and Ft. Sam Houston as well as 300 sewing jobs for women at the Federal Reclamation Station, a military support facility. In 1940, the church established St. Paul House which provided a meeting space as well as lodging for travelers who had no other place to stay because of segregation laws. St. Paul Methodist Church was also took part in the desegregation of lunch counters in San Antonio as well. The church scheduled an interfaith/interracial dinner to be held at the lunch counters on the day they desegregated. St. Paul is vital to the history of African Americans in San Antonio and continues to be a light to the community today.
Mount Zion First Baptist Church
Mount Zion First Baptist Church was founded in 1871 by 23 freed slaves with the assistance of Reverend J. F. Hines of the all-white First Baptist Church. The church was located on Santos Street before it relocated to its current location on Martin Luther King Drive following two fires to the church in 1890 and arson again in 1974. The church would play a huge role in the Civil Rights movement of San Antonio following the arrival of Reverend Claude Black in 1949.
As pastor, Rev. Black invited several prominent figures to speak at his church, including Barbara Jordan, Thurgood Marshall, Azie Taylor Morton, Adam Clayton Powell Jr., and Percy Sutton, among others. The church created Project F.R.E.E, a program that assisted the poor and elderly in the community, as well as the city’s first African American-owned credit union. The church would also begin the first countywide Meals on Wheels program. Rev. Black also became a city councilman and continued his advocacy for equality. In addition to Rev. Black, the church also served as a springboard for Charles Hudspeth, a civil rights activist and President of the San Antonio chapter of the NAACP for many years. Countless influential people who have spoken at the church or are associated with Mt. Zion have influenced the politics of San Antonio. The church's place in the history of San Antonio is unquestioned.
Antioch Baptist Church
Antioch Baptist Church was founded in 1935 and initially held services in a tent and other places while continually growing. They moved into their current location on N. Walters St. in 1974. Antioch hosted SNCC (Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee) as they instituted the first Free Breakfast program in San Antonio, later adopted by SAISD (San Antonio School District).
Another notable pastor was Reverend John Joseph Rector. He was one of the first to provide financial assistance to participants of the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955 and he was known for hosting NAACP meetings at the church despite death threats. He also developed scholarship programs for young black men in the community. The church was home to Ethel Minor who along with Claude Black and other community leaders organized marches and protests throughout Bexar County. While she was not a minister, she served as secretary of the church as well as President of San Antonio branch of the NAACP for 10 years. She is most known for organizing the Martin Luther King Jr. Day March celebration which has grown to be the largest of its kind in the country. Antioch may not have the longevity as some other churches but its impact on the community can never be denied.
Legacies of the Civil Rights Movement
[Mario, Edwina, and Angela Salas Inside Booth During Martin Luther King March], photograph, January 2002. Courtesy of UNT Libraries.
While many who fought for Civil Rights during the second half of the 20th century are now deceased, the spirit of the movement lives on in the religious congregations and everyday people of San Antonio. The Martin Luther King Jr. Day march in San Antonio has long been considered one of the largest in the nation, and the march in 2020 had nearly 300,000 participants.
What we do today will continue to shape our future for generations, touching potentially thousands of lives. Even in the face of adversity, it's possible to make a difference in the world around us, locally, nationally, and internationally. What changes do you want to see in the world around us?
Investigate & Explore
Try interacting with the resources below, and consider a few key questions about these primary sources. A primary source is a piece of media created by the people and organizations involved directly in the historical events that you're studying. Types of primary sources include diaries, letters, pamphlets, interviews, artworks, and many other types of media. By looking at primary sources, we get to experience history from a variety of perspectives, and look more critically at our understanding of history.
Check out this pamphlet from the Student National Coordinating Committee.
The Student National Coordinating Committee was an attempt to rebrand the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee as a more militant group, similar to the Black Panthers. A large portion of this pamphlet is written by Malcolm X, an advocate of the black power movement.
- What arguments are presented in the pamphlet?
- How do they compare to the non-violent message of many Civil Rights leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr.?
Courtesy of UNT's Portal to Texas History
San Antonio Shows the Way - Desegregating lunch counters
In 1960, San Antonio was one of the first cities in the south to integrate their lunch counters, some of which were once found inside popular department stores. The integration of lunch counters was sparked by protest in Greensboro, North Carolina, and the spirit of protest spread quickly across the south. What made San Antonio unique in the integration process is the lunch counters were integrated peacefully and without protests or demonstrations. While plenty of credit can be given to churches, the NAACP, and clergy like Rev. Claude Black for negotiating the peaceful integration of the lunch counters in the city it was a 17 year old college freshman named Mary Lillian Andrews who wrote letters to downtown stores encouraging integration. In her appeals she noted how students of all races could play and learn together in school, but could not share a meal together in stores downtown, including Woolworth's. Read more about the integration process in a the segment from New York Times article to below.
“Both Races Accept Move by 5 Stores,” New York Times, March 20, 1960
Read the article titled "San Antonio Shows the Way" on page four.
Courtesy of UNT's Portal to Texas History
Next, look at this news reel from February 1, 1994, reflecting on the Woolworth sit-ins that took place in Fort Worth, Texas during this same period.
Duration: 2 minutes
[News Clip: Woolworths] : UNT Digital Library
- Why do you think San Antonio was among the first to integrate?
- Are there any visible differences in Fort Worth and San Antonio's paths to integration?
Examine this letter from Mario Salas to Rev. Claude Black regarding the formation of the Black Coalition on Mass Media.
Mario Salas is a Civil Rights activist in San Antonio, who was part of the local Black Power movement during the 1960s and 70s, and a founding member of the Black Coalition on Mass Media. This coalition aimed to achieve equality in the press and stop harmful and racist representation of minorities.
- How does the media influence our view of others, including minorities?
- How do you think the media has changed since 1975, the year this letter was written?
Courtesy of UNT's Portal to Texas History
Hear San Antonio local T. C. Calvert talk about his involvement in the Civil Rights movement in San Antonio.
Calvert acted as a community organizer during the 1960s and 1970s, and continues to advocate for economic and environmental justice in San Antonio's community. He knew and interacted with many of the people described in this project.
Duration: 1 hour 11 minutes.
Oral History Interview with T.C. Calvert, July 1, 2016 : Courtesy of The Portal to Texas History
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills
Curious about how this project fits into your classroom? Please open the link below to examine the T.E.K.S. and see how this project can compliment your Civil Rights lesson plans.
Bibliography
Looking for more primary and secondary sources? Our bibliography includes sources that can address some of your unanswered questions. If you'd like to do some exploring of your own, we recommend using the Portal to Texas History , which contains over a million digitized items that pertain to Texas History. We would also recommend UTSA Digital Collections for the exploration of San Antonio's complex and compelling history.
