American redistricting history

American redistricting history and tools for districts that represent the people

Reapportionment, redistricting, gerrymandering— you may have heard these terms before, but what do they mean and why do they matter?

From the Census to Congressional Districts

Understanding a few definitions and concepts, as well as some American history, can help voters begin to realize why congressional boundaries can resemble a finger painting and the impact on congressional boundaries have on election outcomes.

The U.S. Census triggers a once-a-decade process that recalibrates political maps to account for population shifts. Getting an accurate count of residents is why governments and private organizations launch awareness campaigns urging residents to accurately and promptly answer the decennial census. Census data plays a vital role in informing the current and future needs of a community. It plays a direct role in resource allocation decisions for health care, food and income security, education, housing, and other vital services that are especially important to vulnerable populations such as children, renters, and people of color.

After the census data is tabulated, the U.S. House of Representatives begins to reapportion its 435 seats among the 50 states. The  U.S. Constitution  mandates the reapportionment; more seats per state means more political power to make decisions on federal policies.

This U.S. Census Bureau reapportioned U.S. House seats after the 2010 census. Overall, 18 states gained or lost seats. SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau
This U.S. Census Bureau reapportioned U.S. House seats after the 2010 census. Overall, 18 states gained or lost seats. SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau

This U.S. Census Bureau map shows reapportioned U.S. House seats after the 2010 census. Overall, 18 states gained or lost seats. SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau 

The resulting number of U.S. House seats determines the number of votes each state casts as part of the  Electoral College  for presidential elections. In addition, the funding for many federal programs is also determined by those population counts. The federal funding supports services at a local level, impacting the number of new community health centers built, the amount of funding allocated for investing in transportation infrastructure in low income communities, and even how many housing support programs such as Section 8 are made available.

The census presents a unique opportunity once every 10 years to promote equality and encourage community development in neighborhoods that need it most.

The number of seats in the U.S. House of Representatives was set at its current 435 members during the  Reapportionment Act of 1929 . Each state is guaranteed at least one U.S. House member. (There are seven such states—Montana, Wyoming, North Dakota, South Dakota, Alaska, Delaware, and Vermont—resulting from the 2010 U.S. Census.) The remaining 43 states have 428 U.S. representatives, whose districts average 710,000 constituents.

Redistricting is how state and local governments redraw their political lines. This process ranges from legislative and congressional districts to  school boundaries . Each state has its  own   rules  for how federal and state legislative seats are drawn. The legislatures in nearly 40 states draw their own lines for their state houses and Congress. The rest have independent commissions and advisory panels involved in the process. Most often, governors can veto a plan. Courts are often asked to intervene because political parties and special interest groups believe their constituents are underrepresented in proposed redistricting maps. Generally, the new election districts are in place two years after a census is taken.

Source: U.S. Census

Gaming the system

Ideally, redistricting is supposed to ensure equal representation—but the process has been filled with controversy even before 1812, when the Boston Gazette coined the term “gerrymander” to describe a map favorable to Massachusetts Governor  Elbridge Gerry  and his Democratic-Republican party. After Gerry took office, the party redrew the Senate districts map in an extremely partisan manner with the aim of helping the governor win future elections. The resulting map looked like a salamander, hence the original form of the term, Gerry-mander-ing.

This political cartoon, published by the Boston Gazette on March 26, 1812, used a salamander to satirize the shape of a Massachusetts state senate district in Essex County.

In more recent history, gerrymandering has been used by both major political parties as a tool to maintain political power. Districts were drawn based on partisan voter data, ensuring that the newly drawn district would solidly vote for one party and securing the congressional seat. Below is a map made with ArcGIS Living Atlas showing some of  the worst   of the districts of the 113th Congress. These carved out districts resulted in irregularly-shaped geographic areas that have acquired funny nicknames such as “The praying mantis” and “Goofy kicking Donald Duck.”

North Carolina

12th District

Maryland

3rd District

"The praying mantis"

Pennsylvania

7th District

"Goofy kicking Donald Duck"

Texas

35th District

"The upside-down elephant"

Florida

5th District

In the  2012 election , House Democrats earned 1.17 million more votes than Republicans, but only received 46 percent of the House seats. The results strongly suggest the use of gerrymandering in redistricting to give one party an advantage and resulted in a House of Representatives that did not accurately represent the majority will of the people.

Thomas Hofeller, nicknamed “The Redistricting Guru,” was a mapping and political strategist who used gerrymandering principles in 2010 to redraw congressional seats favoring one party over the other. In 1991, he said, "I define redistricting as the only legalized form of vote-stealing left in the United States today."

I define redistricting as the only legalized form of vote-stealing left in the United States today. - Thomas Hofeller (1991)

“Education about redistricting has been sparse; the information necessary to understand or create plans has been difficult or impossible to obtain,” Micah Altman and Michael McDonald concluded in their 2011 study,  Technology for Public   Participation in Redistricting . “Even interested good-government groups have had difficulties creating plans because of the complexity of rules and cost and difficulty of available tools.”

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Another important consideration in redistricting is the groundbreaking  Voting Rights Act of 1965 , which was designed to protect ethnic and racial minorities from voter suppression. The Voting Rights Act prevents the drawing of districts that deny minorities the opportunity to elect a candidate of their choice, which is also known as racial gerrymandering. Established to address violent voter intimidation in the Jim Crow South during Reconstruction, it is considered one of the most successful and impactful pieces of legislation. The Voting Rights Act has empowered over 10,000 elected officials of color in local, state, and federal U.S. offices.

Elected officials of color from every level of Massachusetts government ( photo credit )

GIS for a transparent redistricting process

With so many important considerations and the 2021 redistricting process drawing nearer, there is a unique opportunity to embed a more democratic and transparent process that includes citizen input. This is made possible with GIS technology. 

According to the Altman and McDonald study, redistricting technology began in the 1960s, was experimented with in the 1970s and 1980s, was adopted professionally in the 1990s, and became commercially available in the 2000s. "The World Wide Web . . . made it significantly easier to obtain information about plans and data, supporting information seeking,” the study said. “The public redistricting technologies available now make it possible for the public to participate in redistricting in new ways.”

In  North Carolina , which was considered one of the most gerrymandered states in the country, recently passed new congressional maps to move away from drawing district lines based on partisan gerrymandering. Hofeller was responsible for drawing districts for the state in 2011, but those maps have been ruled unconstitutional. Part of the improvement was a court-ordered transparency during the redistricting process.

"The citizens of North Carolina, for the first time, were witnesses to the drafting of their voting districts."

"The citizens of North Carolina, for the first time, were witnesses to the drafting of their voting districts," Wake County Superior Court Judge Paul Ridgeway said. The ruling also specified that the public could watch the process and comment in real time. The previous maps gave more seats to Republicans by a 10-3 advantage, but the new maps won two more seats for Democrats, still giving Republicans an advantage by 8-5. Notice how the redrawn district near Winston Salem (in the center of the state) now includes voices that would have otherwise been excluded.

North Carolina's congressional districts for the 115th Congress (left) before districts were redrawn in 2019 (right).

GIS technology, which has given the public an increasing amount of access into redistricting and presents an alternative to gerrymandering that allows citizens to participate, and politicians to transparently share redistricting plans.

In California, which has its own  Voting Rights Act  expanding on the federal  Voting Rights Act of 1965 , cities and counties lines before the 2020 census so they can convert from citywide elections to district representation. In  Redlands , which converted to district elections in 2017, residents could access proposed district maps  online  and comment publicly before the maps were formally adopted.

New Opportunities on the Horizon

With the 2020 census results just around the corner, communities can get started right now using Esri projected data to understand the impact of population shifts in their neighborhood. The increased awareness for civic engagement in recent years may open the doors for the public to play a greater role in the election redrawing process than ever before. GIS technology offers tools and opportunities to not only encourage robust civic engagement, but also to promote inclusive, transparent governance.

Citizens can participate in creating districts that ensure every child, man, woman, and person making a life in this country is represented, heard, and valued — after all, isn’t that what it means to be American? 

Try redistricting your state

with the Redraw political boundaries with public participation LearnGIS Lesson

Explore the most recent congressional district map

with ArcGIS Living Atlas

This U.S. Census Bureau map shows reapportioned U.S. House seats after the 2010 census. Overall, 18 states gained or lost seats. SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau 

Source: U.S. Census

This political cartoon, published by the Boston Gazette on March 26, 1812, used a salamander to satirize the shape of a Massachusetts state senate district in Essex County.

Elected officials of color from every level of Massachusetts government ( photo credit )