A Confluence of Communities: Acequias as Resiliency
This project is supported by funding from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Grant W9126G-23-2-0039
Background
The core focus of this project is the acequia system in the American Southwest. Specifically, investigating the remarkable degree of cooperation and synergy that exists among those responsible for maintaining infrastructure (Acequia Associations) and the end users (tribal communities, local governments). This project aims to explore and delineate the historical evolution and structural aspects of acequias, their associated communities, and the intricate web of natural, social, and economic interactions that constitute their contemporary state.
This Story Map serves to inform Objective 1 Acequia History: exploring the delineation of the historical evolution and structural aspects of acequias, their associated communities, and the intricate web of natural, social, and economic interactions that constitute their contemporary state. The initial phase of this endeavor will primarily encompass principal tasks:
- Conducting a thorough examination of the historical trajectory of acequias as a communal irrigation practice and delving into the origins of communal irrigation, drawing upon a multifaceted approach that incorporates historical accounts, archaeological evidence, and Indigenous oral traditions (Echo-Hawk 2000).
- Assessing the changing needs and evolution of the acequia system as an integral infrastructural component within the communities of central New Mexico.
- Exploring of the establishment of acequias during the period of Spanish colonial dominion over the region, encompassing an analysis of comparable irrigation practices associated with the historical regions of Spanish colonial rule.
- Tracing salient information pertaining to acequias and their affiliated communities through the phases of Mexican independence and the transfer of the region to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, extending our examination up to the 1970s and 1980s.
- Identifying distinctive attributes of acequias and juxtaposing them with other irrigation methodologies prevalent in the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries.
Funding for his project was provided by the United States Army Corps of Engineers Engineering with Nature Program (USACE EWN) awarded to the Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit (CESU) under Cooperative Agreement W9126G-23-2-0039 with the University of Alabama.
Research Team:
- Mr. Michael Fedoroff, Lead PI, University of Alabama
- Mr. Brian Zettle, Co-PI, Tribal Nations Technical Center of Expertise
- Dr. Michael Duczynski, Co-PI, Engineer Research and Development Center
- Mr. Parker King, CONSERVE Graduate Research Assistant Story Map by Parker King and Michael Fedoroff, University of Alabama
Acequia from the New Mexico Acequia Association
"Water is the sacred element that promises life and not a commodity that supports decadence". 3
Acequia refers to both a canal structure and a social institution whereby river water is diverted and distributed via gravity flow among a community of irrigators or water right user-owners called parciantes. 4 Acequias have a long, storied history which we will attempt to summarize here.
The structure of these acequia associations function much like they did in medieval Spain. Each association is headed by a mayordomo who oversees the daily affairs and especially la limpia (the yearly spring cleaning). The mayordomo is elected alongside a comisión that establishes rules and policies, determines fees and fines, and resolves disputes among irrigators. Members are called parciantes who receive individual derechos or water allotments. 6
La limpia, the yearly spring cleaning of the acequia by the parciantes under the supervision of the mayordomo
A brief discussion of vocabulary will be helpful because these terms can get complicated! There is a sort of hierarchy in terms of the ditches. The acequia madre is the "mother ditch" that connects the river to the other ditches, wheras sangrías refer to much smaller ditches that connect to the acequia to irrigate individual parcels. Below is a map to help visualize this distinction.
Vocabulary regarding Acequias
Distinctions between the Acequia Madre, regular acequias, and sangrías
Community
There are close to 700 functioning acequias in the State of New Mexico. This map shows the extent of Acequias in the state and the concentration of them by county. 14
Agriculture in New Mexico relies heavily upon acequias (and agriculture makes up 12.3% of New Mexico's GDP). 22
These maps show the concentrations of various livestock compared to Acequia extent in the state. 21
It is difficult to overstate the importance of acequias to culture in some New Mexican communities. In many communities, acequia associations are the only form of local government at the sub-county level, and function similar as townships or school districts. 8
As such, they perform many political and social functions outside their purpose as irrigation institutions. Members typically mention which acequia association they "belong" to before they mention their city or state.
A Procession during the Bendicion de las Aguas
Querencia
Querencia is a Spanish word that comes from the verb querer which means to want or love. Querencia is often used to describe the foundation of the acequia water culture.
This Querencia is a "deep love of place that involves respect for the environment and roots us to a particular memory experienced through landscape where we know exactly who we are". 17-18
El Agua es la Vida
"Querencia is what anchors people to the land, and this attachment in turn informs and inspires mutualism with neighbors and kin who live in the same place" 20
This querencia and love of the land likely stems from the early environmental ethic that was woven into the very fabric of public law in Spanish and Mexican land grant communities. There is a rich history ensuring that flow is shared down to the last drop and punishing those that misused acequias .
"When flow is low, nobody has any. When it’s high, everyone has some. That’s the way it was too. If there’s a cup of water there, we will share it" 15
Agriculture in New Mexico relies heavily upon acequias (and agriculture makes up 12.3% of New Mexico's GDP). 22 This map shows the difference in the concentration of chickens compared to sheep in relation to acequias in the state. 21
Timeline
Around 1200 BCE
In the Eastern Hemisphere, irrigation was developed gradually in the Middle East. The Qanat system of ancient Persia was the largest-scale example. The word acequia has its roots in the Sabaean (ancient Yemeni) word for cup-bearer (saqiya) which eventually became as-saqiya (Arabic for that which gives water). 7 Like the word, acequia traditions can trace their direct cultural lineage of Yemen. 35
Islamic Water Law
Acequias still operate under principles first codified under the Islamic Law of Thirst (haq-i-shurb) which later became incorporated into Christian Spanish law.
According to this law, water management must prioritize the equitable distribution of water to satisfy the needs of all living beings. Consequently, adherents cannot deny water to those in need. 7
Much of the Law of Thirst comes from laws originally codified in Iran pertaining to the division of qanat waters and the importance of the common good. 8
8th Century CE
Irrigation practices, including Acequias, were brought into Spain during the Muslim occupation, particularly through the influence of the Yemeni royal family during the Abbasid caliphate. 35 This is exemplified through landmarks such as the Patio de la Acequia in Granada, which commemorates the acequia traditions that Muslims brought to Spain centuries ago.
16th Century CE
Acequias were first introduced to the indigenous people of the Americas by the Spanish, and gradually blended with indigenous water practices. The system was ideally suited to the hot climate of northern New Mexico and eventually entered into the human ecosystem, retaining the same qualities of communal participation and sharing of resources that can be traced back to the ancient qanats of Persia five thousands years ago. 35
The image shows a group of Indigenous people washing wheat in the acequia to dissolve dirt and to float away debris from the wheat kernels in 1905.
Water Resources Development Act of 1986
Congress officially declared that the restoration and preservation of acequias has significance in the settlement and development of the Western United States. This act designated Acequia associations as public entities, allowing them to serve as the local sponsor for USACE projects.
Present Day
Acequias are still widely used in the South Western United States and are the lifelines of many rural farming communities. Unfortunately, due to a variety of water policy problems and climate change, many acequias have been significantly damaged, and the communities and environments that they serve are suffering the consequences.
Environment
"The emerald-green ribbons of vegetation that flourish as a result provide an oasis for a diversity of avian life ... Where there are acequias, there are beautiful trees full of birds" 17
In addition to their significant community and cultural role, acequias also provide important ecological benefits. They expand and maintain riparian areas for increased bird and wildlife diversity by "extending the biotic environment beyond the narrow confines of the river channels". 8
These areas act as biological corridors and habitat islands for various plant and animal species, promoting biodiversity. Additionally, they can play a role in mitigating urban heat island effects in urban areas by facilitating evapotranspiration. 24
Acequia use of stream waters also helps maintain stream flows for the protection of fish habitats. Other water uses, such as water rights transfers from surface use to groundwater pumping, can deplete connected stream flows, resulting in the lowering of flows to levels dangerous to fish and other wildlife dependent on the river systems.
Acequia human communities can be thought of as "keystone” species in the bioregional environment because numerous other life forms, including wildlife and native plants, become dependent on the expanded habitat made possible by the ditch watercourses. 8
Developers and water engineers often mistakenly label acequias as "water wasters" because of seepage and evaporation, which they perceive as "not beneficial for human use". 25
However, only 7% of water diverted from the Rio Grande is lost to evapotranspiration. The remaining 93% returns to the river, with 60% returning as surface water and 33% as groundwater. 25 This groundwater "loss" actually plays an important role in recharging aquifers and maintaining groundwater levels.
The natural process of seepage, driven by gravity flow, contributes to cooler and wetter local microclimates.
As water flows gently through the sangrías (ditches that irrigate individual plots of land), it extends the stream, gradually spreading along the long-lot fields. This process also aids in slowing down soil erosion. 25
Microclimates are small areas that have subtle differences in weather variables compared to the surrounding area. 26
Recognizing the need to maintain the cultural and historic value of acequias, congress passed the Water development Act of 1986, which authorized the Albuquerque District of the Army Corps of Engineers has to enter into cooperative agreements and work as partners with any Acequia Association member who requests assistance in the preservation and rehabilitation of the Acequia. 36
The Acequia Rehabilitation and Restoration Program has been providing technical and financial assistance to the associations. In the first 10 years of the program, the program financed 49 rehabilitation and diversion projects amounting to $14.2 million in federal funds, benefiting more than 2,400 acequia users. 8
Challenges
Despite the efforts of the Acequia Rehabilitation Program, acequia associations continue to face a complex array of challenges that threaten the communities and environments that rely upon them.
"The traditional belief that water was the ‘lifeblood of the community’ now contrasts with a legal system that classified water rights as a commodity that could be sold and severed from previous historic uses by a simple market transaction".
The commodification of water in the American Southwest poses a significant threat to acequia communities, which are often considered "lower-value uses" in comparison to large real estate developments. 6
Given that New Mexico is the second driest state in the US 27 ,its water is already fully appropriated, and likely over-appropriated. Water rights transfers incentivize large developments to purchase water rights from historic or traditional users, who may lack the same resources or political power to defend them.
As water moves water, even a few water rights transfers can create a positive feedback loop, prompting other irrigators, who now have less water, to also sell their rights. 8
Broken Acequia Headgate
Many traditional irrigators are labeled as wasters of water by developers , and are pressured by the need to "enhance" their acequias to save water.
Acequia associations have very little cash on hand, and even a 10% cost share can bankrupt some associations. When this happens, the associations have to sell their water share. 16
In addition to the social and economic pressures that acequia communities are facing, they also face challenges due to climate change, especially, fire, flood, and drought.
As temperatures rise, less water is sourced from predictable snowmelt, while more comes from unpredictable rainfall. On average, there is now 25% less snow than during the mid-20th century. 27 Consequently, water supply is reduced and delivered in a less predictable manner.
Wildfires are also increasing in frequency and season length due to climate change. They've recently wreaked havoc on the acequia communities of New Mexico. Disregarding the danger to people or property, wildfires alter how precipitation flows in the watershed. Soot, silt, and other debris get in the acequias and can stop flow altogether. As acequias are hand dug, repairs are very labor intensive and expensive. 30
Pictured is the extent of the Hermit's Peak/Calf Canyon Fire, which occurred in 2022 and was the most destructive wildfire in the history of the state. 29
Sandbags Near an Acequia After a Flood
Especially after wildfires, floods can also severely damage acequias. They are not designed to withstand massive quantities of water and require repair (which again is expensive and labor intensive).
These floods typically occur after wildfires, as blackened soil is highly prone to flooding. 30
Removing Debris from a Culvert
In the of increased disasters, relief funding has proven to be inadequate. Following the black fire, many associations struggled to get funds that were promised by the state, forcing them to rely on private donations. 33
Many emergency funds require locals to cover portions of the funding. The state Department of Finance and Administration announced $133 million in federal relief, which cannot be used for acequia communities as they do not constitute "imminent threats to life and property". 30
Ditch Full of Silt
After the Hermits Peak-Calf Canyon Fire and subsequent flooding, the state DOT constructed cement barriers to protect homes, which ended up dumping additional silt and debris into the local acequia system.
FEMA's response has been underwhelming. Despite verbally agreeing to accept applications from local acequias for its Public Assistance Program, they took months to begin treating acequias like other public entities. Additionally, the State Department of Homeland Security and Emergency Management rejected every request for assistance. 30
As Acequia Associations are treated as public entities in the state of New Mexico, they have to report rather frequently. From the state's published Infrastructure Capital Improvement Plans, one can get a general idea of the condition of acequias based on their challenges and goals.
This map shows the number of these reports by county, along with the condition of the infrastructure ranging from adequate to critical, based on Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation.
Additional Resources
CONSERVE
