Radioactive France

"Hoorah for France...This morning she is stronger and prouder. From the bottom of my heart, I thank you and those who have achieved this magnificent success." -Charles De Gaulle, February 13, 1960

Located in Northern Africa, Algeria is a country that for millennia has had a history of invasions from the Romans, the Ottomans, the Arabs, and finally, the French. In 1834, France colonized Algeria. Algeria as part of France held a large settler population compared to some of its other colonies, making up about 15% of the population of Algeria. To most French people, Algeria was France.

The Algerian War began in 1954 and ended in 1962 with the signing of the Evian Accords. It granted Algeria's independence from France and sparked a wave of decolonization movements across Africa. As French nuclear testing began during the War, some scholars believe that nuclear testing was an act of war on the part of the French, despite the two usually being separated. The war was indeed bloody on the Algerian side as estimates say that approximately 1.5 million died (while France estimates about 400,000 Algerians died). The loss of Algeria as a colony was detrimental to the French prestige that De Gaulle strove to build.

While it technically was within Algerian borders, the Sahara desert was not considered a "part" of Algeria, and thus not a part of France. The Sahara offered a strategic place for France for both oil and nuclear testing. In addition, France believed it would be a safe distance from the metropolitan areas. However, with the Algerian War undergoing, it is fair to assume that testing in Algeria was also a demonstration on the part of the French. As one member of the De Gaulle Government said "let's drop the bomb on Algiers instead of Reganne." This quote showcases that maybe the people of Algeria were not the main priority for the De Gaulle government anyway.

Underground testing begins after France ends its atmospheric testing program. A total of 152 underground tests were carried out in this period. France stopped all tests on Mururoa in 1996.

After the Gerboise Verte was detonated in Algeria in April of 1961, a majority of French tests, including the remaining 13 tests in Algeria were conducted underground. Thus, it is important to understand the two types of nuclear tests and why France would switch.

Atmospheric (Overground) Testing - these tests have explosions that take place in the atmosphere. The radioactive fallout from these tests was large, as is evident by the Gerboise Bleue. In 1963, these tests were banned by the Partial Test Ban Treaty.

Underground Testing - these tests have explosions that take place below the surface of the Earth and have come to contain the majority of nuclear tests that have taken place. If fully contained, these tests can lessen the fallout compared to that of Atmospheric Tests. If not fully contained, they can produce fallout, as seen with the French's Beryl Test in 1962.

While France continued to the atmospheric tests when they switched from Algeria to Polynesia, a majority of their tests remained underground. In 1974, France halted their atmospheric tests in Polynesia due to the pressure of legal action from New Zealand over radioactive fallout. This legal action presented itself as a case through the ICJ by New Zealand and Australia in 1973. Although the court gave no direct ruling, stating that the two countries had no "object" any longer, the case did indeed push France to stop its atmospheric testing in French Polynesia.

After the Evian Accords stipulation's five years expires and the French leave Algeria in 1967, the French also leave their nuclear waste and the consequences of nuclear testing with the Algerian People. When France left, they never stated where or how much nuclear waste remained. In addition, they never secured the waste or told Algeria how to take care of it.

The French buried equipment that was most likely contaminated at both sites of testing, but reportedly had radioactive waste buried in concrete bunkers.

Estimates differ on the number of Algerians affected by testings. Both French and Algerian representatives offer different numbers. France estimates the number around 27,000 while Algeria estimates the number at about 60,000. A true number may never be agreed upon. Today, numerous groups in Algeria, including the Association 13 février 1960 and Association des Victimes des Essais Nucléaires de Taourirt, continue to fight for their cases to be heard on France's political agenda.

The fallout from France's nuclear tests in French Polynesia is still being understood. The work of the researchers who analyzed the French declassified government documents is included below. The Mururoa Files look specifically at radioactive fallout and its consequences. The StoryMap included below demonstrates the high levels of radioactivity present on the atolls of French Polynesia, underreported by the French government and inadequately addressed to this day. Explore below to look at cancer clusters on the islands, and read more in depth about the most damaging atmospheric tests on the islands which I explored above.

While the islands of French Polynesia are small and the population is sparse, many individual lives were affected by radiation, including the children who inhabited the atolls. This means that generations of inhabitants of French Polynesia will continue to be affected by the cancers caused by radiation. This is a harsh legacy of French colonialism in the Pacific.

Adopted on January 5, 2010, the Morin Law was a response to victims of French nuclear tests by the French Parliament; it was an official statement that French tests were linked to health problems. As of 2014, the law recognizes 23 illnesses in association with nuclear testing. However, most of the recipients of this compensation are members of the 150,000 French civilians and military that took part in the nuclear testing. The Law now allows for those of all of French Polynesia to seek compensation while the geographic boundaries remain narrow for Algeria and the Sahara.

In the decade since the passing of the Morin Law, only one Algerian has been awarded compensation. This can be attributed to the inability of Algerians to prove that they were present and the lack of documents in Arabic for Algerians to be able to file.

Compensation for the inhabitants of French Polynesia has been erratic and unevenly distributed. A victim must prove that they both lived in French Polynesia and developed one of 23 specified types of cancers caused by exposure to radioactivity. The Mururoa Files have described this procedure as an "unscalable wall," noting that 80% of applications are rejected and that only 454 people have been given offers for compensation from the government. The Mururoa Files also note a case of two sisters born one year apart who were exposed to the same conditions and developed the same cancer: one sister received compensation and the other did not. The authors of the Mururoa Files argue that 110,000 citizens of French Polynesia may be eligible for compensation based on their modeling of radioactive fallout caused by the atmospheric tests carried out between 1966 and 1974. However, due to the inaccuracies of French reporting of the actual level of fallout and erratic monitoring of nuclear tests, as well as inaccurate software, proving a claim is very difficult for the citizens of French Polynesia.

In 2020, the process was changed so that anyone on the islands who could prove that they were exposed to more than 1mSV of ionizing radiation in a year were eligible for compensation. The authors of the Mururoa Files argued that this made it easier for French officials on the islands to gain compensation for their exposure to radiation, but not the inhabitants of the islands themselves. This is why the Mururoa Files describe France's actions as a "compensation trap."

The investigation turned up high levels of cancer in the Gambier Islands, illness in 2,000 former test staff, government documents demonstrating that French officials knew that the winds were blowing in the wrong direction to carry out both the Aldébaran test that affected the Gambier Islands and the Centaure test which affected Tahiti, underestimation of radiation exposure doses, and reliance on older evidence to compensate victims when the actual level of radiation and number of victims were far higher.

In July of 2021, President Emmanuel Macron visited the islands of French Polynesia and said that France owed the islands a debt, but without directly apologizing. Earlier in the year, just after Toxique and the Mururoa Files were released, the French government denied that they underreported radiation exposure.

Macron did say that the deadline for filing claims would be extended, but he faced criticism that this may not be enough. So far, no other concrete action has been taken to improve the situation.

The issue of French Nuclear testing, especially in Mururoa and Fangataufa, achieved high media salience in the late spring and summer of 2021 after the publication of Toxique and the Mururoa Files. While President Macron visited French Polynesia in July and claimed that France owed the people a "debt," France did not respond beyond this statement and did not apologize.

The first step towards a stronger relationship between France and its former nuclear testing sites is a sincere and formal apology by the French government for the years of testing inflicted on its colonial possessions. Additionally, although France declassified a large portion of its documents concerning nuclear testing they are hard to parse for the average civilian, and took a team of committed researchers to accurately assess. If France truly wants to take responsibility for its actions and pay the debt it owes to the population of French Polynesia, it could organize a government database on the history and legacy of its nuclear testing program so this information is readily available to both the French public and those seeking to gain compensation. Public acknowledgment and proactive education and accessibility would make great strides towards French governmental accountability. However, there are steps that can be taken beyond this to concretely work towards ameliorating the situation on the ground.

As described above, the researchers for the Mururoa Files identified approximately 110,000 people who would be eligible for compensation in French Polynesia, yet the compensation process has not been facilitated by the French government. Yet the tools to apply and receive compensation are not easily accessible to the population of French Polynesia. The French government could and should be doing more. A simple step would be to broaden the requirements for compensation and make claims simpler to file by amending the law and the government process itself, but the government could do more for the population on which it inflicted decades of harmful nuclear testing.

The research team for Toxique worked extensively with the local populations of French Polynesia to complete their research. The French government should coordinate with those researchers to identify individuals who should be compensated and guide them through the process of gaining compensation. Additionally, military personnel who were stationed in French Polynesia at the time and were able to gain compensation themselves are also in a position to aid the local population. The main concerns with the current compensation process are that it is restrictive, confusing, and inaccessible. These issues could be easily remedied if networks of support were created by the French government through military personnel and the researchers who have already put in the work to identify individuals who should be compensated.

The French government could also create its own contingent of officials tasked with collaborating with the scientists and researchers of the Mururoa Project and identifying and helping the families and individuals eligible for aid. Having people in the ground, on the islands, connecting with the population which has borne the dark side of France's quest for prestige and global power would make great strides towards paying the debt which President Macron has acknowledged France owes.

Algeria has had a lot less media attention for its nuclear testing compared to the news released when Toxique was published about French Polynesia. Today, one of the main solutions for Algeria is to try and get France to recognize the wrongs they committed in Algeria alongside that of French Polynesia. Recognition and formal apologies will not bring back they lives lost, but they are an excellent place to start.

Another major problem for Algerians is their lack of access to the compensation given by the Morin Law. As stated, only one Algerian has been able to receive compensation, even with "reduced" restrictions. France needs to lessens the restrictions more and broaden the geographic area as files have told us fallout from atmospheric testing was more widespread than previously thought. In addition, France needs to make applications accessible. They need to be in Arabic and people need to be informed that they are eligible to file for said compensation. Otherwise, the Morin Law portrays itself as a false apology by the French with no real aid to those who truly suffered from the testing.

"25 Years of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty." Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires Étrangères, 2021. Accessed November 27, 2021. https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/french-foreign-policy/security-disarmament-and-non-proliferation/news/2021/article/25-years-of-the-comprehensive-nuclear-test-ban-treaty.

“Algeria: France-Algeria Independence Agreements (Evian Agreements).” International Legal Materials 1, no. 2 (1962).

Collin, Jean-Marie and Patrice Bouveret. "The Waste From French Nuclear Tests in Algeria Radioactivity Under the Sand: Analysis with regard to the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons." Heinrich Böll Foundation (2020).

"France: Compensation of Victims of French Nuclear Testing." 2009. Web Page. https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2009-07-08/france-compensation-of-victims-of-french-nuclear-testing/.

"France - ICAN." ICAN. Accessed November 20, 2021. https://www.icanw.org/france

"France remembers the Algerian War, 50 Years On." France24, 2012. https://www.france24.com/en/20120316-commemorations-mark-end-algerian-war-independence-france-evian-accords

"French Nuclear Program." Atomic Heritage Foundation in Partnership with the National Museum of Nuclear Science and History. Last modified February 14, 2017. Accessed November 17, 2021. https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/french-nuclear-program.

"French Polynesia: New Law on the Functioning of Governing Institutions." 2011. Web Page. https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2011-08-16/french-polynesia-new-law-on-the-functioning-of-governing-institutions/.

Huber, B. Rose. "Toxique: The Aftermath of French Nuclear Testing in the South Pacific." Princeton School of Public and International Affairs. Princeton University, March 10, 2021. Accessed November 27, 2021. https://spia.princeton.edu/news/toxique-aftermath-french-nuclear-testing-south-pacific.

Johnston, Anna.“'The Awful Depravity of Human Nature:'Violence and humanitarian narratives in New South Wales and Tahiti, 1796–99." Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 17, no. 1 (2016).

Kraft, Scott. "France to Resume Nuclear Weapons Tests : Arms: New president announces temporary revival of program, ending 3-year ban. Greenpeace decries the move." Los Angeles Times, June 14, 1995. Accessed November 27, 2021. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-06-14-mn-13076-story.html.

"Mururoa Files." Disclose, Princeton University, and Interprt, 2021. Accessed November 27, 2021. https://moruroa-files.org/en/.

"New study on nuclear testing in French Polynesia reveals France’s ‘censorship and secrecy'." The World, August 6, 2021. Accessed November 27, 2021. https://theworld.org/stories/2021-08-06/new-study-nuclear-testing-french-polynesia-reveals-france-s-censorship-and.

Panchasi, Roxanne. "'No Hiroshima in Africa': The Algerian War and the Question of French Nuclear Tests in the Sahara." History of the Present, 9, no. 1 (2019).

"Radiological Conditions at Former French Nuclear Test Sites in Algeria: Preliminary Assessment and Recommendations." International Atomic Energy Agency, 2005. https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1215_web_new.pdf.

Riding, Alan. "France Suspends its Testing of Nuclear Weapons." New York Times, April 9, 1992. Accessed November 27, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/09/world/france-suspends-its-testing-of-nuclear-weapons.html.

Saura, Bruno. "Remembrance of the Colonial Past in the French Islands of the Pacific: Speeches, Representations, and Commemorations." The Contemporary Pacific 27, no. 2 (2015): 337-368.

Shepard, Todd. The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France. Cornell University Press, 2006.

"Stages of an underground nuclear test." BBC. Last modified January 6, 2016. Accessed November 27, 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-35244474.

"The Radiological Situation at the Atolls of Mururoa and Fangataufa." International Atomic Energy Agency Report, 1998. https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1028_web.pdf.

"Treaty of Rarotonga." Nuclear Threat Initiative. Last modified November 30, 2021. Accessed November 27, 2021. https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/south-pacific-nuclear-free-zone-spnfz-treaty-rarotonga/.

"Types of Nuclear Weapons Tests." Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Accessed November 20, 2021. https://www.ctbto.org/nuclear-testing/history-of-nuclear-testing/types-of-nuclear-weapons-tests/

"Without apologising, Macron says Paris owes 'debt' to French Polynesia over nuclear tests." France 24, July 28, 2021. Accessed November 27, 2021. https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20210728-without-apologising-macron-says-paris-owes-debt-to-french-polynesia-over-nuclear-tests.

Wright, Tony, Matthew Gledhill, Andrew McCathie and Andrew Byrne. "From the Archives 1995: World outrage as French prepare for bomb No 2." The Sydney Morning Herald, originally published September 6, 1995, last modified September 6, 2019. Accessed November 27, 2021. https://www.smh.com.au/world/oceania/from-the-archives-1995-world-outrage-as-french-prepare-for-bomb-no-2-20190830-p52mi9.html.

Erin LeBlanc is a junior at Boston University majoring in political science and international relations. She completed this research on French nuclear testing in French Polynesia as a Fall 2021 intern for the Nuclear Sites Project under the Global Decolonization Initiative at Boston University. She became interested in nuclear politics after taking International Nuclear Politics in the Summer of 2021 with Professor Jayita Sarkar, and was excited to have the opportunity to do research in both English and French by getting to look at the French Nuclear testing program in Mururoa and Fangataufa. She hopes to continue to work in nuclear politics research and policy in the future, and will be continuing her exploration of international politics through Boston University's Spring 2022 Geneva Internship Program.

Alexis Bauer is a senior at Boston University studying International Relations, History, and Public Health. She completed her research on French Nuclear Testing in Algeria as a Fall 2021 Intern for the Nuclear Sites Project under the Global Decolonization Initiative. In the future, Alexis will continue to study those affected by colonialism by continuing her education. Following graduation, Alexis plans to receive her Master's in Public Health with a focus on Global Health in Africa. She hopes to be able to complete more research on the health detriments that colonialism had on the African continent.