Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

• The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary covers 2900 square nautical miles in the waters surrounding the Florida Keys (NOAA, 2011a). Humans have been using these marine ecosystems since their arrival, with Native Americans being the first to rely on the marine ecosystems here, following the colonists, and eventually modern Americans (Florida Keys History and Discovery Center, 2017). Each successive group of people has increased the amount of damage and pressure on the entire Florida Keys ecosystem. After experiencing a widespread conservation crisis in the waters surrounding the Florida Keys, this large National Marine Sanctuary was put into place as an attempt to mitigate the damage done and protect these ecosystems (NOAA, 2011a). 

The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary is part of a group of fifteen nationally protected sanctuaries in the United States (NOAA, 2011a). These sanctuaries each offer unique protection ecosystems, species, and cultural sites. The National Marine Sanctuary status was put into place to protect the diverse marine ecosystems that have been damaged as a result of overuse, the increasing South Florida population, rapidly changing environmental conditions, and other human impacts. This area was chosen to be protected due to its many diverse and biologically important ecosystems. Included are the only coral reefs found in the continental United States in addition to seagrass beds, mudflats, and mangrove ecosystems (Suman, 1997). 

The National Marine Sanctuary has been effective in preserving these resource systems because of careful marine zoning, ongoing research on conservation related matters, and community involvement). It has implemented maximum protection in two dozen zones across the sanctuary where no fishing or collection of any biological material is allowed, with ongoing research studying how these sites benefit from this management (Baker, 1999). However, there are still ongoing challenges and new issues constantly emerging that require constant changes in governance, use, and conservation. 

Environmental regulations are a newer development in the waters around the Florida Keys. In 1957, a presentation was given by Dr. Gilbert Voss of the University of Miami Marine Institute that presented his findings and research on the damage on coral reefs (Sweeney & Roper, 1991). This was the first time concern for marine environments had been addressed in the Florida Keys. This was the beginning of environmental concern and soon after the first environmental governance emerged - with the beginning of marine parks in south Florida. Two years later, the first undersea park in the United States was created in the Florida Keys, with the purpose of protecting the coral (NOAA, 2015a).

After continued degradation of other reef environments and the need for stronger protection for the existing protected areas, the first national marine sanctuary was implemented in the Keys in 1975. This sanctuary was named the Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary (NOAA, 2015a). Less than a decade after the creation of the Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary, Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary was created in 1981 to preserve the high biodiversity of fish found in these waters (NOAA, 2011b).

After a particularly damaging decade in the 1980s, which was filled with massive algal blooms, an explosion of harmful invasive species, increased shipping vessel traffic which resulted in grounding on reefs, and huge losses in biodiversity, this brought even more attention to these fragile marine ecosystems and the need for better environmental protection (Sweeney & Roper, 1991). This conservation crisis led to the combination of the two existing sanctuaries and new areas being added to create one large sanctuary - known as the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. George H. Bush approved this bill, finalizing the creation of the NMS in 1990, as it currently exists today (NOAA, 2015a).

Elinor Ostrom created the Social Ecological Systems (SES) Framework as part of her work in studying Tragedy of the Commons and what could be done to save them. An SES is composed of the ecosystems found within a resource used by humans, resource units - such as species living in the system or abiotic factors, human users, and governance (rules/organizations in charge) (Ostrom, 2009, p. 419). The waters surrounding the Florida Keys are a complex resource system, illustrated below in the SES Framework diagram. 

Coral Reefs

Coral reefs and humans have always had a complex relationship, with early hunter gatherers relying on many reef dwelling organisms for survival. In more recent years, the reefs have provided jobs, helped the economy, and given people opportunities to enjoy their beauty (NOAA, 2011a). But, the reefs can only support these activities in moderation. Many problems plague coral reefs today, including but not limited to warming temperatures, ocean acidification, pollution, toxic algae blooms, coral diseases with anthropogenic causes, invasive species, physical loss of reef habitats due to boating, and harmful fishing/collection practices (Göltenboth et al., 2006). However, in coral reefs in other parts of the world government-level protection has been effective in preserving coral reefs and reestablishing lost populations (Purwanto et al., 2021).

Coral reefs offer ample opportunities for biologists to conduct research and examine the benefits of having a marine sanctuary. There are many ongoing studies currently within the sanctuary, especially with coral regeneration (NOAA, 2015b). It has been proven that natural regeneration is the best way to promote reef health, as human efforts to repopulate the reefs are expensive, time-consuming, and usually not very effective (Göltenboth et al., 2006). 

Seagrass Beds

Seagrass beds are one of the most productive ecosystems for sequestering carbon in the world and have suffered greatly from boat damage, pollution, and many other anthropocentric effects. Compared to terrestrial forests, they are around 30 times more efficient at removing carbon dioxide (NOAA, 2011a).

Seagrass beds are important in determining the health and resilience of reefs and mangrove forests, in addition to mitigating climate change with their productive CO2 sequestration. They provide important habitat for many benthic organisms in addition to many fish species (Meijer et al., 2021). Smaller percentages of seagrass bed coverage leads to less biodiversity in nearby ecosystems.

Mangroves

Mangrove forests are one of the most productive ecosystems in the world and benefit the Earth in many ways, with their impacts reaching all over the globe. Their strong roots help prevent coastline erosion and flooding in addition to acting as nurseries for many important commercial fish species (Meijer et al., 2021). Within the climate crisis, mangrove forests have experienced many different challenges, some of which are pesticide/agricultural runoff, damage from overtourism, and coastal development. As a result of poor water quality, large amounts of mangroves have been lost (NOAA, 2015a). There are ongoing research and conservation efforts to replant and protect mangrove forests, but they are still being lost at a higher rate than they are being replenished. 

Mudflats

Mudflats are an important part of the coastal ecosystem. They are coastal sediment deposits that are important for preventing flooding and host habitats for seabirds and many important benthic organisms. Mudflats have suffered from overtourism and researchers who have unintentionally overused them, as too much foot traffic destroys them (Rossi et al., 2007). In addition, these intertidal habitats are important in regulating the health of environments found nearby, including seagrass beds and coral reefs. Healthier mudflat environments in turn lead to healthier and more resilient seagrass beds and coral reefs (Meijer et al., 2021). With careful regulations, existing mudflats are protected.

Many locals and visitors come to the Florida Keys to snorkel or scuba dive, fish, or other types of water recreation. In the past, this was not done at sustainable levels, with many areas being destroyed due to too many boats, too much human waste and pollution, and other negative impacts(Sweeney & Roper, 1991). The marine zones in the Sanctuary prevent overuse and limit recreational use to specific types per zone (NOAA, 2015b). As a result of this, recreational users are not one of the main problems of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary anymore. In addition, biologically materials are not allowed to be collected and fishing is catch and release only (NOAA, 2011c).

There are many different companies that make their living working within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. As part of the Sanctuary, a seal has been created called the Blue Star Program, which is a certification that the tour company is sustainable and will also educate its customers on sustainability (NOAA Blue Star). Recreational users are encouraged to choose a company that is part of the Blue Star Program.

Research is constantly ongoing in these areas due to the high biodiversity, extremely productive ecosystems, and their quick decline. Much research that is going on today affects future rules and regulations of the the sanctuary (NOAA, 2015a). Care has to be taken that research is not negatively impacting the environment, sometimes researchers can overvisit or oversample sites (Rossi et al., 2007).

The DEP is a state level group that is put in place to protect and manage the lands of the entire state of Florida. They are responsible for managing all parks, public lands, coastal, and submerged lands (Florida Department of Environmental Protection). They also oversee all waste, air, and water quality management. The DEP works closely with local governments and communities and other organizations - including private organizations and national level government organizations. 

The NOAA Office of Law Enforcement works with the Sanctuary. They produce the website for the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and have a wealth of information on its history, research, rules and regulations, and more. The NOAA Office of Law Enforcement works to regulate users and enforce rules and regulations within the waters (NOAA, 2011c). NOAA partners with the DEP to jointly manage these resource systems (Florida Department of Environmental Protection). 

This group is made up of all different types of citizens who work together to form this committee. This committee also works closely with NOAA and DEP. Anyone who has any sort of interest in any of the activities that occur within the sanctuary or any interest in a specific resource unit is welcome to apply when there are vacancies on the council (NOAA, 2010). This provides a way for users to represent themselves and give themselves a voice.

Governance

The above actors work together to determine how the sanctuary gets zoned. Some zones do not allow for any use to protect delicate habitats, some allow for underwater recreational activities while others allow for only fishing. Each zone is carefully created for a specific activity so there is no conflict between users. This is done to make sure that everyone’s best interests are taken care of, both recreational, commercial, and conservational (NOAA, 2015b). There are also sanctuary-wide rules which include but are not limited to making sure no species or biological material is removed, no non-native species are released, and participating in any activity that damages the sanctuary in any way (NOAA, 2011c).

Officers from NOAA Office of Law Enforcement, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission enforce these zones and regulations. In addition, these officers work with other state, federal, university, and non-governmental organizations to achieve conservation goals. If someone is caught violating sanctuary rules, depending on the type of violation and the severity of it, it can result in fines up to $140,000 and the potential loss of licenses or permits. If is it not a severe violation, violators are also sometimes given the opportunity to correct their mistake on the spot or within a short timeframe (NOAA, 2011c).

Any user is also allowed to report any violations or incidents they witness on the NOAA website, which directs them to the best way to get into contact with the correct department depending on the violation they witnessed. Social norms that hold an increasing respect of the environment and concern for human effects have led to communities and users working together to enforce these rules, in addition to the large organizations.

Clear boundaries have been established - NOAA, DEP, and the Advisory Council have clearly defined who is allowed and who is not allowed to use this resource (Ostrom, 2015). In addition, the marine zones and regulations are partially determined by locals who have vested interests in the protection and use of waters within the sanctuary. These marine zones are marked by yellow buoys. Some of the buoys have a sticker on them that describes the zone and what is allowed or not allowed (NOAA, 2015b). NOAA is responsible for enforcing and monitoring the users - their department of law enforcement is responsible for this. The governance of this National Marine Sanctuary is complex and involves many different actors, from citizens on the advisory board to different levels of actors in NOAA and DEP. 

No, the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary is not a tragedy of the commons anymore, although previously it was. The actors have worked hard to protect this area and have implemented helpful governance and conservation. Ongoing research on effectiveness of sanctuary rules and regulations and emerging problems is monitored. Overall, the sanctuary has been successful in reducing damage to reef environments, protecting species within, and other goals.

Baker, B. (1999). First aid for an ailing reef: Research in the florida keys national marine sanctuary. Bioscience, 49(3), 173-178.  https://doi.org/10.2307/1313506 

Carbon sequestration in mangrove forests - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Differences-in-whole-ecosystem-carbon-stocks-among-boreal-temperate-and-tropical_fig1_274116107 [accessed 14 Dec, 2021]

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. (n.d.). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved December 7, 2021, from https://floridadep.gov/rcp/fknms

Göltenboth, F., Schoppe, S., & Widmann, P. (2006). 4 - coral reefs. (pp. 47-69). Elsevier B.V.  https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-044452739-4/50005-X 

Meijer, K. J., El-Hacen, E. M., Govers, L. L., Lavaleye, M., Piersma, T., & Olff, H. (2021). Mangrove-mudflat connectivity shapes benthic communities in a tropical intertidal system. Ecological Indicators, 130, 108030.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.108030 

Ostrom, E. (2009). A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science), 325(5939), 419-422.  https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1172133 

Ostrom, E. (2015). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press.

Purwanto, Andradi‐Brown, D. A., Matualage, D., Rumengan, I., Awaludinnoer, Pada, D., Hidayat, N. I., Amkieltiela, Fox, H. E., Fox, M., Mangubhai, S., Hamid, L., Lazuardi, M. E., Mambrasar, R., Maulana, N., Mulyadi, Tuharea, S., Pakiding, F., & Ahmadia, G. N. (2021). The bird's head seascape marine protected area network—Preventing biodiversity and ecosystem service loss amidst rapid change in papua, indonesia. Conservation Science and Practice, 3(6), n/a.  https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.393 

Rossi, F., Forster, R. M., Montserrat, F., Ponti, M., Terlizzi, A., Ysebaert, T., & Middelburg, J. J. (2007). Human trampling as short-term disturbance on intertidal mudflats: effects on macrofauna biodiversity and population dynamics of bivalves. Marine biology, 151(6), 2077–2090.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-007-0641-0 

Rountree, B. (2019, August 23). Get away from it all, and enjoy the clams, on remote Cedar key. sun. Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://www.sun-sentinel.com/travel/fl-fea-cedar-key-florida-rambler-20180206-story.html. 

Sanctuary, F. K. N. M. (2011a, April 1). Explore Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/explore.html?s=explore 

Sanctuary, F. K. N. M. (2015a, October 30). History of Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. History of florida keys national marine sanctuary. Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/history.html.

Sanctuary, F. K. N. M. (2011b, July 5). Looe Key Sanctuary Preservation Area. Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/zones/spas/looekey.html 

Sanctuary, F. K. N. M. (2015b, September 25). Marine zoning and Regulatory Review. Marine Zoning and Regulatory Review Home - Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/review/welcome.html. 

Sanctuary, F. K. N. M. (2011c, June 21). Penalty schedules. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Enforcement Penalty Schedules. Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/le/penalties.html 

Sanctuary, F. K. N. M. (2010, December 7). Sanctuary advisory council. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary - Sanctuary Advisory Council. Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/sac/welcome.html?s=sac 

Suman, D. O. (1997). The florida keys national marine sanctuary: A case study of an innovative federal-state partnership in marine resource management. Coastal Management, 25(3), 293-324.  https://doi.org/10.1080/08920759709362324 

Sweeney, M. J., & Roper, C. F. E. (1991). Gilbert L. voss: A commemoration, bibliography and described taxa. Bulletin of Marine Science, 49(1), 5-19.

Trail of Florida’s Indian Heritage. (2017, July 24). Florida Keys History and Discovery Center - Trail of Florida's Indian Heritage. https://www.trailoffloridasindianheritage.org/floridakeyshistorycenter/

US Department of Commerce, N. O. and A. A. (2019, April 2). What is eutrophication? NOAA's National Ocean Service. Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eutrophication.html.

Wetlands. (2021, September 24). Conservation in a Changing Climate.  https://climatechange.lta.org/wetlands/