Accessibility of green spaces in Amsterdam

What is the distribution of greenspaces in Amsterdam and how accessible are these?

Introduction

Are we slowly getting more out of touch with nature as half the world's population now lives in urban areas (Kondo, et al., 2018)? While the fact that nature is essential in human lives is no question, the relationship between nature and humans has changed a lot in the last millennia. We have shifted from a society living closely to nature to a society that sometimes only perceives nature as decoration rather than as a vital part of our lives. Sometimes the only green urban citizens see are the trees planted in the streets. 

However, it is important for all urban citizens to have access to green spaces, real green spaces. During the pandemic, it became clear that green spaces in cities are unequally distributed (Kleinschroth & Kowarik, 2020). With this GIS project, the objective is to assess whether this unequal distribution applies to the city of Amsterdam as well. The focus will be on the experience, accessibility and distribution of green spaces. This leads to the following main research question:  What is the distribution of greenspaces in Amsterdam and how accessible are these?  

To answer our research question we will first establish what we consider to be urban green spaces (UGS) and why accessibility to green spaces is important. We will explain how we made the different maps showing us the distribution, accessibility and experience of urban green spaces. The maps will give us a clear picture of how the UGS is distributed over the city of Amsterdam and how accessible these areas are. Using data from our own survey we will see how people experience green spaces in Amsterdam and we will try to answer the following question: does this accessibility translate to experienced accessibility of green spaces? 

Theoretical framework

Before starting this research it is important to establish a clear definition of urban green spaces (UGS). The urban area can be divided into ‘grey’ and ‘green’ spaces. Grey space includes open spaces that have hard and impermeable surfaces, such as streets and squares. Green spaces are more difficult to define because there have been different interpretations and are experienced differently. Green space research has been growing in the last few decades due to the increasing interest in the impact that biodiversity and ecosystem function have on life in urban areas (Taylor & Hochuli, 2017). 

There are different criteria to base the definition of green space on, such as size, ownership or tree coverage. We found two definitions that we thought were most fitting within our discipline, urban planning. According to Taylor & Hochuli (2017, p. 32), green space refers to  ‘small urban parks, including public parks, street verges, cemeteries, and sports grounds’. Similarly, a more detailed definition from De Haas et al. (2021) characterizes green space as ‘urban land, partly or completely covered with grass, trees, shrubs, or other vegetation. Urban Green Space includes parks, community gardens and cemeteries, but also rooftop gardens and vertical gardens, meadows and woods’ (De Haas et al., 2021, p. 1). However, for our research, we defined green spaces as green places, which could be used for leisure purposes. Therefore, we decided not to include cemeteries. Another change we made to the existing definitions of green space was the exclusion of rooftop and vertical gardens, we restricted our research to public green spaces. This is of importance for the outcome of this project since not everybody considers greenspace as the same thing. 

Access to urban green spaces plays an important role in shaping the health, wealth, and overall well-being of urban citizens, as highlighted by De Haas et al. (2021). The significance of this connection can also be seen in the article conducted by Kondo et al. (2018), as “we found consistent negative association between urban green space exposure and mortality, heart rate, and violence, and positive association with attention, mood, and physical activity” (Kondo et al., 2018, p. 445). The beneficial impact of urban green spaces on health is further emphasized in a report by the World Health Organization (WHO), summarizing evidence such as improved mental health, reduced cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, obesity and risk of type 2 diabetes, and improved pregnancy outcomes (WHO, 2016). These advantages stem from various factors, such as experiencing psychological calmness, reducing stress, engaging in increased physical activity and encountering lower levels of air pollutants, noise, and excessive heat. These benefits are especially relevant for economically deprived communities, children, pregnant women and senior citizens (WHO, 2016).

What are green spaces?

1

Vondelpark

Vondelpark is a large park in Amsterdam, near the city centre. It's a park where people go for leisure, walking their do etc. We included Vondelpark, and other city parks in our selection of green space, because of its size and use.

2

Rembrandtplein

Rembrandtplein is a square in the centre of Amsterdam. According to the Gemeente Amsterdam, Rembrandtplein is considered a green space. We decided to not include it in our selection of green spaces. Rembrandtplein is a small, hectic and lively environment, with lots of trams, and tourists. Which cause nuisances. These are characteristics we don't assume with a green space. Also during the wintertime, the square is occupied by a skating rink, which you have to pay for.

Data & Methods

To research the distribution, accessibility and experience of greenspaces in Amsterdam multiple data sources and methods have been used. The projection used for all maps is RD NEW. Below is listed per part what data is used and what methods have been applied.

Distribution

To determine the distribution of greenspaces, two methods have been used. First, for a general impression of the distribution of greenspaces and urban areas, satellite imagery is used. This data was sourced from the data collection of Copernicus, which provides open and free access to satellite imagery (Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, 2023). The dataset used from this source was the satellite imagery from Sentinel 2 captured on February 14th, 2023 and was derived on November 13th, 2023. This image was used as it represents the most recent satellite image that offers a clear, cloud-free depiction of the entire city. 

The dataset included all bands, however, it was decided only to use the bands that made a false colour image to enhance the vegetation visualization. The image was created through the composite band tool in ArcGIS with bands 8, 4 en 3. Subsequently, the image has been classified with manually made training sites (refer to Table 1). The classifier used for this process was the maximum likelihood.

Type of land use

Amount of training sites

Water

32

Urban

19

Vegetation

23

Table 1. Number of training sites used

Since certain bodies of water were unclear on the first classified image (e.g. Amstel and certain canals), water has more training sites than the other categories.

Besides the satellite imagery data, other forms of data from the municipality of Amsterdam have been retrieved. This data gives a clear image of where recreational green spaces are located in Amsterdam. The dataset was downloaded from the site of Open Data Amsterdam and dates from November 2022 (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2022). This dataset provides the locations of parks and other recreational green spaces in the city of Amsterdam and is therefore useful for this project. It should be noted that certain limitations to this data set have been perceived. Certain areas have been marked as green space whereas in reality these areas are not seen as such. Therefore a selection has been made based on our own experience, results from the survey and minimum surface area (>15000 M²). 

Accessibility

The accessibility has been assessed with the help of a network dataset. It has been argued that using this method is optimal for studying accessibility (Comber et al., 2008, p. 105).  The network dataset used is made with a file provided in lab 5 coming from the city of Amsterdam (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2018). This file has been edited to match with the base map. Costs were incorporated via properties. In order to calculate speed, an average of 1.4 meters per second was applied. After this, the dataset has been calculated.

In order to create the service areas, we required facilities, which in this case, are the entrances of the parks. However, this data was not available. To solve this, we created possible entrances manually. This has been done by selecting the intersections of the roads of the network data set and the polygons of the parks. This selection was saved as a new layer, which was then converted to points with the tool feature to point. Consequently, this provides a representation of possible entrances. It must be mentioned that there is a possibility that these don’t overlap with the real entrances. However, since the distance would be minimal this can be omitted. After the facilities were loaded in different time cut-offs were used. The initial cut-off was 10 minutes of walking, however, afterwards a 5-minute cut-off was added.

The municipality of Amsterdam published in 2020 a vision on the greenspaces in the city of Amsterdam. This document, from now on called Groenvisie, mentions the development and criteria of greenspaces. One of the ambitions they mention is to make greenspace accessible for everyone and the criterion for that is that everybody lives within a 10-minute walk of a small greenspace and a 15-minute bike ride of bigger green areas (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2020, p. 25). For this reason, we decided to use a 5 and 10-minute cut in our analysis to see which areas are still lacking in this criterion.

Experience

To determine how accessibility influences the experience of green spaces we collected data with the help of a survey. Salonen et al. (2014) highlight the importance of combining participation data, in this case a survey, with network analysis  to understand why choices of transportation mode are made. With this project, similar objectives were developed. The main objective was to understand what people would consider as green space and how long they are willing to travel to green space. In addition to this, people were asked about their experience of greenspaces and if they felt they had proper access to them. We gathered participants by distributing notes with QR codes across various neighborhoods in Amsterdam and sharing the link on social media platforms. It is important to note that the survey we conducted is not sample representative, as the majority of the survey participants are between the ages of 18-29, 82 percent of the total responses. 

Results

Distribution

Satellite imagery map of Amsterdam (2023)

Landuse in Amsterdam

In order to obtain a general impression of the green space distribution, satellite imagery has been used. The map illustrates that the majority of the land within the city's boundaries is classified as urban, as displayed in orange. However, certain green areas are identifiable, particularly in the districts Oost, Zuid-Oost, Noord and West. Although this map provides a general overview of the city, this does not provide an accurate depiction of the green spaces used since cemeteries, sports fields and private green spaces (such as private gardens or the zoo) are also classified as vegetation. For a more detailed observation of the distribution of green spaces in Amsterdam, the data derived from the city of Amsterdam is used below.

General green spaces in Amsterdam (2022)

Green spaces in Amsterdam

The map shows the distribution of parks and other recreational green spaces in the city of Amsterdam, as illustrated in green. Overall, while greenspaces are distributed throughout the city, their distribution is not consistently even. Notably, Amsterdam-West and Amsterdam-Zuid stand out as areas with more parks and recreational greenspaces compared to other parts of the city. Certain areas, such as the city center, noticeably lack significant greenspaces. 

Additionally, the distribution in greenspaces within neighborhoods is also not always spread evenly, such as in Bijlmer, where Bijlmer-East has more greenspaces compared to Bijlmer-West. It seems that there is a lack of green spaces in the northwestern area of the city, however, this can be attributed to the fact that this area constitutes the harbor of Amsterdam. 

Map of service areas within a 5-minute walk

Map of areas within a 5 minute walking distance

The map above shows the accessibility of green space within a five-minute walking distance. We have opted for an intuitive colour scheme that allows for easy visualisation, where lighter shades of green suggest areas that have access to greenspace within a five-minute walking distance, while the darker shades of green indicate parks and other recreational greenspaces, including water bodies such as Gaasperplas en Slotermeer. We decided not to include the canals of Amsterdam, the IJ and Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal, due to their water quality not meeting recreational standards (except sailing).

Interpreting the map reveals that not all areas of Amsterdam offer immediate access to green spaces within a five-minute walking distance. Regions within a five-minute walking distance are primarily concentrated around parks and recreational areas, predominantly found in the western and southern parts of Amsterdam (referred to as Amsterdam-West and Amsterdam-Zuid). This could be attributed to larger parks such as Westerpark, Rembrandtpark, Vondelpark and Amsterdamse Bos, as well as smaller green spaces such as Sarphatipark, Museumplein and Erasmuspark. As a result, Amsterdam-West, and -Zuid have relatively higher accessibility to greenspace than other parts of Amsterdam. 

The map also highlights significant access to green spaces in the eastern area of Amsterdam (known as Amsterdam-Oost), which can be attributed to the proximity of Oosterpark, Flevopark and Park Frankendael. However, it is crucial to note that the sports fields in Oost also appear as greenspaces, which could be questioned. 

It is evident that some areas lack access to greenspace within a five-minute radius, which is clearly visible in the city center of Amsterdam, as well as parts of Bijlmer, Nieuw-West and Amsterdam-Noord. Furthermore, the map implies that Amstelveen, Ouderkerk aan de Amstel, Abcoude, Landsmeer, Oostzaan and Badhoevedorp do not have access to green space at all. However, this could be attributed to the fact that they are not part of the municipality of Amsterdam, hence why there is no data from these areas available in the dataset. This also applies to Weesp, which recently became part of Amsterdams’ municipality and therefore is not included in the used dataset yet. Diemen is an exemption in this case, as it appears to have access to green space, while it does not belong to the municipality of Amsterdam and therefore is not included in the dataset. However, since Diemen is surrounded by the city center, Amsterdam-Oost and -Zuidoost, it appears that it belongs to Amsterdam and some adjacent parts of Diemen do have access to green space. 

Map of service areas within a 10-minute walk

Map of areas within a 10 minute walking distance

This map defines areas in Amsterdam with access to green space within a ten-minute walking radius. All the areas that meet this requirement are marked as a light shade of green, with darker shades indicating the presence of parks and recreational spaces, including lakes. Overall, most parts of Amsterdam have access to green spaces within a ten-minute walking distance, except for the city center, Bullewijk in Bijlmer (office district), Westpoort (which is a port area) and Osdorp.

When comparing green spaces within a five-minute and ten-minute walk radius, a clear pattern emerges on the map. The five-minute radius shows direct access to green spaces, with an emphasis on clusters around parks and recreational areas. In contrast, the ten-minute radius covers a wider spectrum, indicating more extensive coverage of green spaces. 

Again, adjacent places such as Weesp, Amstelveen, Ouderkerk aan de Amstel, Abcoude, Landsmeer, Oostzaan and Badhoevedorp appear to have no access to green space, since these areas are not included in the dataset. 

Swipe to see to difference in 5 and 10-minute walking

Map of 10-minute walk service area with selection

Map of area within a 10 minute walking distance with selection

This map is based on our chosen criteria for green spaces, which only selects parks with a surface area exceeding 15,000 square meters. According to this definition, a much bigger area lacks access to green space within a ten-minute walking radius. Especially the city center and parts of Zuid are predominantly losing areas with access. This shows the importance of choosing the ‘correct’ definition of green space and how with a different definition results can differ.

swipe to see the slight difference in acces to bigger green spaces

Survey results

The proximity of green spaces is an indicator of accessibility to green space in a city, but it does not paint the entire picture. The accessibility is also determined by experience: “The quality of the green space is in how it's managed. Some spaces near me aren't cleaned or maintained. So the effect it has on me is much more minimal” (respondent from the survey, 2023). Since personal experience is an important aspect of accessibility, we made a survey to get an insight into people’s experiences of the green spaces in Amsterdam. The survey is meant as an example for further research and real results can not be drawn from the collected data, but there were some interesting things mentioned by respondents, which are worth discussing.

In the survey, we asked what our respondents thought green spaces were, since the definition is, as we discussed, open to interpretation. City parks, woods and other places covered with plants and trees were often mentioned. The absence of motorized vehicles was essential to most. Another answer referred to the public aspect of green spaces: “Any free space, open to the public, which has trees, places to sit and maybe a body of water” Others saw it mainly as “a place for social interaction, nature and mindfulness” and “places with nature where people can make use of relaxing facilities”. 

The varied range of answers showed how different interpretations of green spaces can lead to different experiences of the same space. As some enjoy green spaces for social interactions and meetings with friends, others seek quiet and peace: “Green places with birds, butterflies, bees, flowers, clear water and silence are very important for the wellbeing of people.” (emphasis added). References to silence and an aversion to crowds were mentioned multiple times. For example, some respondents talked about how they avoided some parks due to crowds: “The green space I have access to is very busy especially during summer months so it’s barely enjoyable.” 

The importance of green space for mental well-being was also stressed by multiple respondents who considered it “places you can go to reset” or “a park to enjoy a more natural environment, to walk and decompress”. To the question of when and why people visit green spaces, one person answered “whenever I can, [...] because I enjoy being in a green space. It takes the stress away a little”. “I like the space and how it makes me feel.”

To address the question of whether the accessibility to green space also correlates to the experienced accessibility of greenspace, we asked various questions in our survey. We asked our respondents if they feel like they have access to green space near them, if they appreciate the green space and how often they feel like they are in a green space. Of all 57 respondents, 43 agreed that they have access to green space near them, 13 were neutral and one of them disagreed. 41 respondents appreciated the quality of the green space near them, 12 were neutral on the matter and 4 of them disagreed. As stated in Table 2, most of the respondents feel like they are in green space quite often,  from a few times a week to every day. Only a small number of the respondents (4%) stated that they find themselves hardly ever or never in green space. Overall, this aligns with the interpretation of the maps of service areas as previously shown. 

How often do you feel like you are in green space?

100%

57

Everyday

16%

9

4-6 times a week

19%

11

1-3 times a week

40%

23

1-3 times a month

21%

12

(Almost) never

4%

2

Table 2. Answer from survey question “How often do you feel like you are in green space?”, from accessibility to green space survey. 

Conclusion & Reflection

This project tried to visualize the areas in Amsterdam that have access to greenspace. This has been done by first looking at the distribution of greenspaces with satellite imagery and data from the municipality. After pinpointing the greenspaces on the map, we looked at different service areas around the greenspaces. It is clear that the majority of the city has access to a park within ten minutes of walking and therefore checking the criterium from the municipality. However, when being critical at what is considered as green space, this area decreases. Especially the city center, Java-Eiland, Oostelijk Havengebied and parts of the Pijp have no longer access to green space within a ten minute walk. When the distance is decreased to a five minute walking radius, big parts of the city no longer have access to green space. The survey provided an opportunity for a bottom up definition of green spaces. This could be used for future research. It is promising to observe that a significant portion of Amsterdam already has access to green spaces within ten minutes, meeting the municipality’s objectives. In order to ensure that all citizens of Amsterdam have equitable access to urban green spaces, it is crucial to further analyse the distribution and accessibility of green spaces. However, it is not within the scope of this project to further analyse how the areas without access can be turned into areas with access. Further research is required to address this.

For further research a more extensive survey could be held to get a real idea of experienced green spaces. This would mean that the research sample would be bigger and more accurate for the population of Amsterdam. A representative conclusion could then be drawn from this survey. We could even conduct interviews with people in problem areas to get a better understanding of their situation and see whether people in these areas experience what can be seen on the maps. The same could be done with people in advanced areas.

Another limitation is the absence of time management, which has led to the missing element of a link to population statistics and spatial disparities in our research. We underestimated certain tasks, which ensured that the workload was unevenly distributed. This problem was compounded by the difficulty of working with multiple people on GIS maps. For the next project, this could be solved by better estimating the workload and distributing it better.

Satellite imagery map of Amsterdam (2023)

General green spaces in Amsterdam (2022)

Map of areas within a 5 minute walking distance

Map of areas within a 10 minute walking distance

Swipe to see to difference in 5 and 10-minute walking

Map of area within a 10 minute walking distance with selection

swipe to see the slight difference in acces to bigger green spaces