Hadzabe Facing Extinction
One of the world’s last and most ancient hunter-gatherer societies struggle for survival in northern Tanzania.
Background
Photo Credit: Cultural Survival
Fewer than 2,000 Hadzabe (also called Hadza), a culturally distinct community of hunter-gatherers living in small groups throughout Tanzania, remain. Their click language is unlike any other in the region, but resembling that of Botswana’s San Bushmen. For over 10,000 years Hadza have traditionally occupied the acacia forests and scrubland around Lake Eyasi located in Northern Tanzania in Arusha and Shinyanga regions. The aridity of the area makes the land unsuited for agriculture and the presence of the tsetse fly makes it similarly unsuitable for cattle. Hadza communities have no system of hereditary leadership but instead use horizontal governance models, which rely on the duty to share resources with one another. Through foraging, Hadza depend on the land for their ecologically sustainable lifestyle. Hadzabe communities also utilize their knowledge of different plant and tree species to make medicine for various illnesses. The UN notes that the Hadzabe are “a classic example of the ethnic groups in Tanzania that have lived in harmony with nature” ( 2020 ).
Introduction
For decades the government of Tanzania has designated the land that Hadza inhabit as vacant. Because their homeland is located on the outskirts of the Serengeti plains and in the shadow of Ngorongoro Crater, this makes expansion of wildlife preservation and pastoralism major threats to Hadza livelihoods. Even with some progress, Hadza have lost up to 90% of their land over the past semi-centennial.
Hadzabe have been a focus of anthropological study since 1957, as they provide a current link to modes of human life and survival that have been largely abandoned by the majority of humankind. According to Oxfam , an international non-governmental organization, Hadzabe are facing extinction as their homelands are being converted into conservation areas and agricultural fields. Other social scientists have expressed similar fears.
In addition to land theft and the disruption of livelihoods, human rights breaches against Hadza communities include disappearances and prosecutions of journalists and activists, as well as the closing of civic space and freedom of expression. As a result of these circumstances, there has been less reporting and disclosure of human rights abuses, as well as less civil society participation in human rights concerns.
History and Culture
Hadzabe DNA points to an ancient ancestry, dating back 100,000 years, possibly serving as the fundamentals for a human's family tree. Their home in Tanzania's Olduvai Gorge has been named the "Cradle of Mankind" due to the discovery of some of the world's oldest human remains, according to Oxford Academic .
“Culture is very important, because when people forget their culture, they forget where they are from,” explains Shani Msafir Sigwazi, a Hadzabe who graduated as a law student from Tumaini University, Makumira in Arusha, Tanzania. Hunting and gathering techniques have been passed down for many generations from handmade bows and arrows and hunting strategies to finding nutrition in berries. While Hadzabe value their long-surviving cultural practics, some are ready to integrate partially into contemporary Tanzanian society. Most Hadza parents want their children to go to school, but the only choice is for them to board for nine months per year starting at the age of six at a school where they are taught entirely in Swahili by non-Hadza instructors — a practice that amounts to forced assimilation along lines that have failed elsewhere.
Protecting their Homeland
Hunting and gathering is seen by Tanzania’s leaders as undesirable and degrading, which has been reflected in government legislation. Attempts to convert Hadza into peasant farmers failed during colonial times and while the program was renewed after independence, it achieved limited success. Hadza survival is threatened by land loss due to farming and wildlife protection. Despite this, Hadza are collaborating with local non-governmental organizations to establish communal land rights for all Hadza communities.
In 2011, the Tanzanian government made history by formally granting land certificates to a Hadzabe community of 700 people. Hadzabe villages received 12 additional communal land titles in 2012. The land titles were formally awarded in October 2011 at the Hadza settlement of Domongo during a special ceremony. After the ceremony, one Hadzabe told a reporter “We are very happy. Now we need to make sure we get land titles for other Hadza communities” ( 2011 ). Some Hadzabe have been able to grow, graze, and hunt on their ancestral territories as a result of this. Formalized land rights helped Hadzabe to get involved with Carbon Tanzania so as to have a steady stream of revenue.
The Dorobo Fund has helped Datoga pastoralists, who sometimes clash with Hadzabe over land usage, get additional grazing rights that act as buffer zones for Hadza land and provide foraging opportunities. Datoga are in the process of managing grazing grounds by restricting access and creating seasonal usage areas. Adding more buffer grazing grounds, as well as managing them and controlling access to Hadza lands, is a continuous endeavor. Using money raised through the Carbon Tanzania offset initiative, the Hadza community pays community scouts to monitor their territory. These scouts report violations to the local authority, which takes appropriate action. This planned series of events is only partially operational at the moment and is still undergoing development and refining in a context of increasing pressures on Hadza land. There is still considerable potential in northern Tanzania to protect key buffer zones and connect current Hadza land with larger conservation initiatives.
Early morning hunt looking for Egyptian goose. ( Photo: Nature )
Food and water insecurity are also a major threat to the health of Hadza. Pastoralists whose cattle drink their water and graze on their grasslands, farmers who remove trees to cultivate crops, and climate change that dries out rivers and stunts grass growth, are all encroaching on Hadza territory. The cattle also deter wild game like antelope and buffalo, which Hadza hunt for food. Shani Msafin-Sigwaze, the first Hadza student to attend university who is also an unofficial spokesman for his community, explains that hunters have to go “far to even find little birds” ( 2014 ).
Pastoralists from the Datoga ethnic group let their cattle graze on grass and drink from water holes on Hadza property all year round. Tutu, a Hadza woman, pointed out her people's dwellings in one Hadza camp to reporters from Science where instead of the typical grass thatch, its tree-branch frames were covered with clothing and bark. She said, "The cows devour all the grass" ( 2018 ). The Datoga are also settling in, erecting bomas—mud-walled homes surrounded by acacia-thorn fences used to corral animals—near Hadza water sources. Hadza and their prey are kept away from the river by these settlements.
Due to minimal government representation, the Hadza are politically weak, making it difficult to counter settlements on land where their rights have already been established.
Boundary of land belonging to Hadza has significantly changed over the years as their communities have become more constrained. ( Credit )
A 2018 climate resilience project aiming to remake northern Tanzania’s communities has the potential to significantly improve rural and urban families’ climate resilience, particularly small-scale farmers and rural households. Yet, despite living within two kilometers of the project site, marginalized Hadzabe hunter-gatherers will not benefit from it. As a result, they risk being denied much-needed project benefits. According to the PINGOs Forum, this is in violation of the Indigenous Peoples Policy.
Impact of Tourism
Image of Hadza children wearing baboon skin for tourists. (Photo Credit )
Today, only around 100 to 300 Hadza people still hunt and gather the majority of their food in the parched hills between Lake Eyasi and the Rift Valley highlands. The majority of Hadza continue to scavenge for berries but also purchase or trade to get food, and are sometimes given alcohol and marijuana by visitors. Many spend part of the year in larger semi-permanent camps in Mang’ola ward’s expansive community, where they rely on tourism and occasional employment on farms or as guards for cash wages. Hadza also make money by selling bead bracelets and other products. Tourism is having a toxic impact on Hadza ways of life. Tourists can pay to watch Hadza hunt, which is often merely performative since they are unable to catch prey with spectators or to dig for tubers and perform dances. At one encampment, Hadza donned baboon skin, which is not their usual attire but meets visitors' expectations of how hunter-gatherers are imagined to dress. Hadza residing in Mang’ola have greater rates of alcoholism, sickness, and early mortality than those living in the bush, according to researcher Blurton-Jones .
A Future With Carbon Tanzania
Carbon Tanzania is an organization that has developed programs to partner with Hadzabe communities on the issue of conservation. Marc Baker founded Carbon Tanzania in 2006 to help the preservation and development of forests by ensuring legal tenure for local communities over their land. Since Hadzabe already hold some legal titles to their land, they have given consent for the project to be undertaken. Carbon Tanzania is a project under the UN initiative known as REDD+ (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) that works towards commissioning local communities, like the Hadza, by giving them the opportunity to earn an income from carbon offsets. Payments are made for trees that remain unharmed in the area, and these payments are higher than the price they would fetch if cut down, which provides an economic incentive to conserve forest lands. The Yeada Valley Project is one of these REDD+ projects delegated to the Hadzabe. This allowed for the establishment of a system that pays for the Hadza to protect their forests and gives them support on how to do so. The project relies on the social responsibility of indigenous people, rather than creating a legal obligation.
Hadzabe Tribe: 40,000 year-old hunter-gatherer tribe gains land rights in Tanzania
"Jo Anderson, co-founder and director of finance and sales at Carbon Tanzania, presents the bi-annual profits from carbon sales during a community meeting in Domanga village in Yaeda Valley. It is up to the community to decide how to spend the money. Photo by Sophie Tremblay for Mongabay" ( 2016 )
The Yaeda Valley project spans over 31,930 hectares of forest, saving 12,000 trees from being cut down annually, amounting to 16,011 tons of sequestered carbon dioxide per year. Carbon credits earned by Hadzabe are then sold to companies looking to offset their levels of pollution. These carbon credits provide an incentive for indigenous communities to aid in conservation efforts on their own traditional land and offer a livelihood for those who are already engaged in conservation efforts. Communities gather annually to decide how to spend the money. Most of the money goes to training rangers, improving healthcare access, and providing school fees for dozens of children. Much of it also goes to ensuring further protection of the forest. Carbon Tanzania also pays villagers monthly salaries to go on patrol and mark down any new encroachments or loggings. Carbon Tanzania helps these local communities secure land titles from the government with money that comes from the carbon credits. These advances earned them international recognition in 2019:
"This nature-based solution to helping mitigate the effects of climate change is also preserving a people's traditional way of life in a modern world. And for this reason, the Hadza’s Yaeda Valley Project is a recipient of the 2019 Equator Prize, one of the United Nation’s most prestigious awards for environmental protection and climate resilience” (2020).
( Photo: Science )
Hadzabe deal with the COVID-19 Pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the inequalities of indigenous people all around the world. These include threats to their food supplies, safety, health, livelihoods, and land rights made worse by a continued pattern of neglect. Throughout the continent, indigenous people have been faced with the heightened risk of contracting the virus due to poor access to health services and inequitable socioeconomic status. However, Hadza have mostly been able to sustain themselves with only some government assistance due to their way of living and the resources provided to them by their lands. Through recent initiatives, they are now able to maintain their land rights and resources while other indigenous people face more uncertainty. The inequities of the pandemic make marginalized communities a target of exclusion from government operations. In this case, however, NGOs have been active in the region, communicating the danger of the virus in both Hadzabe and Kiswahili languages. These NGOs, including the Hadzabe Survival Council, which is run by members of the Hadza community, are ensuring the inclusion of the Hadza. The Tanzanian government also sent officials to visit the communities in order to educate them about proper hygiene and safely to protect themselves from the pandemic. They raised awareness by distributing flyers about the spread of the coronavirus and spoke about preventative measures.
Hadzabe protecting themselves from the pandemic ( Photo : Minority Rights)
While case rates were very high, the government set the goal of reopening Tanzania for tourism and avoiding lockdown. The economy was labeled more important than public health. By July 7th, 2020 the official count of confirmed cases in Tanzania stood at 509 with only 21 deaths only because on 29th of April that year, the government stopped publishing official cases. It also declared the pandemic over and that Tanzania was open for tourism. Thus, it can not be estimated how many Hadza lives the virus has claimed. The WHO has been skeptical about Tanzania’s approach to the pandemic, and others have accused the government of cover-ups, according to Minority Rights Group International .
Only on February 21th, 2021 did the Head of the Public Relations Unit, Gerard Chami, acknowledge that a “respiratory disease” was still present in the country, the resulted of pressure from activists and the deaths of ten high-ranking politicians, including the First Vice President of Zanzibar Seif Sharif Hamad, former Bank of Tanzania Governor Prof Benno Ndulu, and former Finance and Planning permanent secretary Dr. Servacius Likwelile. While then President John Magufuli still had yet to reference COVID-19 by name, he urged Tanzanians to take precautions, including wearing masks, during his announcement in February ( 2021 ).
Hadzabe Timeline
Mid-1980s
Laws were created to prevent the “free-for-all hunting on Hadza land.” Likewise, money from the Dorobo Fund—generated from research and sustainable tourism—is utilized in an effort to boost healthcare and education in Hadza communities.
December 1993
For the first time ever recorded, the Great Ruaha River running through the Usangu and Mbarali district stopped flowing and dried up. Not only is it the primary water resource for the Ruaha National Park, it also supplies water to two national hydroelectric power stations and thus is of great importance for the national economy. Two years later this became an even larger concern when Dar es Salaam experienced electricity shortages due to the drying up of the river. This issue was subsequently blamed on indigenous people.
1994
With pressure from Hadza and a Canadian volunteer organization, a small portion of land was registered in the center of Hadza county. Still, the government possessed rights over hunting in the area and leased them out to a commercial company. With almost no political representation, Hadza were forced to accept the terms.
2006-2007
Pastoralists and their cattle were forcibly evicted from Usangu and Mbarali Districts in order to expand Ruaha National Park. The evictions were also justified on the basis of environmental protectionism, namely because pastoralists were blamed for the low Ruaha River levels owing to overwatering of herds. [This has been refuted by scholars who instead highlight the high usage of water for agro-industrial irrigation.]
2007
“Tanzania voted in favor of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) in 2007 but does not recognize the existence of any Indigenous Peoples in the country and there is no specific national policy or legislation on Indigenous Peoples per se.” (Mamo, 2020 ) In fact, various government programs and policies did not consider the interests of indigenous people when coming to access to land, natural resources and social services in the process of being developed. The repercussions of this were a “deteriorating and increasingly hostile political environment for both pastoralists and hunter-gatherers.” (Mamo, 2020 )
Late 2007
The government of Tanzania made a deal with a safari company from the United Arab Emirates to lease the land traditionally occupied by Hadza. Despite the deal allegedly including the development of roads and educational facilities, Hadza were not consulted and opposed the plans. In response to a campaign led by indigenous activists, the safari company withdrew from the project in November 2007, scoring a rare triumph for Hadza.
2010
Conservationists Marc Baker and Jo Anderson co-founded Carbon Tanzania, a social enterprise to help Hadzabe benefit from reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation carbon trading. At the same time, the Ujamaa Community Resource Team (UCRT), which fights to secure land rights for Tanzania’s indigenous communities, was working with Hadzabe and the local government in the Yaeda Valley on a plan to ensure Hadza ownership of their land.
October 2011
For the first time in history, the Tanzanian government made a landmark decision to issue communal land titles to Hadza community of Domongo. This 700-person community became the first indigenous community in Tanzania to receive a land title in the form of a Certificate of Customary Rights of Occupancy (CCRO) over their land. Hadza were also allowed to create their own by-laws of their newly secured land for how it should be used. This also allowed for the possibility of the Carbon Tanzania Project.
2012
Hadza community received 12 more communal land titles, allowing them to use their indigenous lands to maintain a flow of income. Much of the income made from farming, grazing, and hunting was used to pay off medical bills. Still, even with these land titles, Hadza are severely constricted and many still live in areas where they have no land rights.
2014
A Hadza scout was killed by poachers. The scouts, armed only with bows and arrows, had detained some heavily armed poachers in an attempt to protect the wildlife and land in their area.
2016
Edward Loure, program coordinator of UCRT, won the 2016 Goldman Environmental Prize, the world's most prestigious prize for grassroots activists, for his efforts to protect indigenous land rights in Tanzania. He is a Maasai activist from Tanzania. . Loure expanded his work to include the Yaeda Valley's Hadzabe tribe. He reached an arrangement with NGO Carbon Tanzania to compensate the Hadzabe for the carbon trapped in their woodlands. See Video: https://youtu.be/hCVQNs2s0rM
September 2017- February 2018
Newly constructed power lines that allowed for increased pump irrigation attracted mass in-migration of farmers to Hadza territories. The farmers use tractors to clear land, slowly encroaching on Hadza communities and resulting in fewer animals for Hadza to hunt.
12 December 2018
The Green Climate Fund (GCF) signed a funding agreement with Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW) (Germany’s development bank, a GCF Accredited Entity) to promote climate resilience in communities in northern Tanzania, specifically to help them adapt to changes in water access to due climate change. This five-year project had a total budget of €143.4 million. Hadzabe households, however, are not set to benefit from this project.
15 January 2019
Then President John Pombe Magufuli issued a statement condemning land grabbing in the name of wildlife preservation. The hope given to indigenous people by saying that evictions should stop throughout the country until boundaries were established did not last long as, by the end of the year, the issue remained largely unresolved.
2019
The Yaeda Valley Project, which is a REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) project under Carbon Tanzania, was awarded the 2019 Equator Prize by UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) for its work addressing poverty through conservation with Hadza communities.
2019
Many reported droughts resulted in increased tension between indigenous communities and conservation authorities. Conservation continued to be a driving motivation behind evictions and land dispossession throughout the year and continues today. The indigenous civil society organizations banded together on the grounds of climate change, empowering communities to engage with policymakers, and aiming to secure indigenous grazing rights. Heavy rains engulfed the country from October through the end of the year. While this saved the livestock, diseases in herds were reported following the rains.
Mid-2019
The Great Ruaha River again experienced extremely low water levels. In early 2019, then Vice President Samia Suluhu Hassan, organized a task force to rescue the river. Months later, the report was leaked by PINGOs Forum, a coalition of indigenous civil society organizations. This document, along with others, again forwarded the false assertion that indigenous people, mainly pastoralists, were a threat to the protection of the Great Ruaha River. The government announced that they will try to save the river at any cost, including further evictions of indigenous people.
2020-2021
Tanzania was hit hard by the socioeconomic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, but due to Hadzabe’s self-reliance and lower exposure to the market economy, they were not as economically affected as other communities. Because Hadzabe have some land ownership secured, they have been able to sustain themselves better than other indigenous communities during this pandemic.
17 March 2021
Tanzania’s president, John Magufuli, died.
Conclusion
Most Hadza children now attend school for a few years, speak Swahili alongside their native language, have cell phones, and dress in donated Western clothing. Still, "they are not integrating into a normal rural Tanzanian life," explains Colette Berbesque, an evolutionary anthropologist at the University of Roehampton in London, who has been studying the Hadza since 2007. Instead, they are "transitioning to a life where they're at the absolute bottom of the barrel" ( 2018 ) due to the marginalization and exploitation they face. Foundations and projects are not trying to force the Hadza to maintain a particular way of life, but help them interact with a changing world. Concerned about Hadza's condition, experts consider their responsibility to the people they've spent decades studying. Human behavioral ecologist Alyssa Crittenden who has studied the Hadza since 2004 says that “ it’s clear to anyone who goes out to see the Hadza that we're dealing with small populations being pinched on all sides” ( 2018 ). In Tanzania, conservation and wildlife preservation remained a key motivator of land grabbing, forced evictions, and human rights violations against indigenous peoples. Despite their resilience in the past, experts warn that the Hadza are now facing a terrifying confluence of challenges.
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