HALIOTIS

“...the snails were stacked on each other; three and four high; different sizes, and in a variety of colors: black, gray, brown, and stunning shades of blue. Some had worn shells revealing their telltale iridescent nacre. Seeing them, I felt that same rush of wonder from my youth. The beauty and magnitude of this scene and the feeling that all was not lost...”

As a child, my passion for the natural world was ignited by countless hours spent exploring the rocky shoreline of Laguna Beach, California. On school breaks and weekends, this biome was my home away from home, to the point that I knew every crag and pool of one particular cove. During these explorations, I lost myself in the biological richness and dynamics of the intertidal, with lasting effect.

It’s incredible that life endures here at all. The delicate appearance of the organisms inhabiting this rugged zone is countered by their ability to withstand pounding waves and survive the extreme fluctuations of salinity and temperature that come with exposure during low tide. I recall the endless discoveries made in just a single tidepool. An octopus on the hunt or a sea hare grazing the coralline algae-encrusted rocks were always thrilling observations, but the rare find of a black abalone (Haliotis cracherodii) stands out. I can still see their smooth, dark shells clamped to the underside of a rocky ledge. I didn’t know it at the time, but these large snails were remnants of a once prominent keystone species of the Southern California coastline.

Over just a few years, my black abalone finds dwindled to zero as they disappeared from the Laguna coves and other parts of their historic coastal range. Was it due to overharvesting? Pollution? I didn’t know; I just felt the loss. As I would later learn, despite their superb adaptations to this extreme environment, a number of human and environmental pressures had converged to drastically diminish the black abs that once belonged to these magical places.

A few decades later, while photographing a remote reef in California’s Channel Islands, the ebbing tide revealed a black abalone – and then another one, and many more! I knew there were still some healthy populations out on the islands, but I never expected to see black abalone thriving like this. In a few of the grottos, the snails were stacked on each other; three and four high; different sizes, and in a variety of colors: black, gray, brown, and stunning shades of blue. Some had worn shells revealing their telltale iridescent nacre. Seeing them, I felt that same rush of wonder from my youth. The beauty and magnitude of this scene and the feeling that all was not lost was the initial inspiration for this story.

As a conservation photographer, my challenge is to craft compelling visual narratives that evoke a profound sense of wonder, empathy, and responsibility for the natural world. Ultimately, I hope to motivate action for change. In this case, the task is to reveal the hidden majesty of the black abalone and its plight. But how does one elevate a rarely seen, nearly sessile snail from lowly mollusk to cherished creature? Charismatic megafauna more easily garner our attention – and these elusive tidepool denizens are no pandas. So I invite the reader to discover the remarkable nature of these animals through the eyes of those striving to save them, and to witness the extraordinary efforts underway to bring them back from the edge of extinction.

M.J.READY | ARTIST STATEMENT

"My ancestors utilized 'taya or black abalone for food, and also as tools and items of trade. They adorned themselves with beautiful necklaces, earrings and pendants made from its shell. It was a great staple. As we move towards healing from the past, which includes the revitalization of cultural practices, the preservation of the black abalone has relevance and is of vital importance to our natural environment."

When it comes to black abalone, many hold a story of deep connection to these seemingly inconspicuous invertebrates. For over 10,000 years, coastal Indigenous people, of the land now known as the Californias, sustainably stewarded abalone for sustenance, trade, tradition, and ceremony. Both then and now, members across these Tribal Nations hold the value of abalone as intrinsic – representing a way of life and a story of identity.

In the 1700s, the coincident enslavement and genocide of Native communities and the extirpation of large ocean predators such as sea otters by European colonizers tragically led to the upheaval of a once balanced ecosystem. Across their historic range, from Crescent City, California to Southern Baja California, an estimated 3.54 million black abalone held fast in the Rocky Intertidal Zone. This unprecedented disturbance led to a release of abalone from top-down forces and population numbers proliferated.

The Gold Rush of 1848 brought many seeking fortune and a better life to California’s shores – including Chinese and Japanese immigrants. However, as the gold diminished, discrimination abounded. These communities were forced to find alternative occupations such as coastal fishing. The accessibility, abundance, and cultural connection to these molluscs made black abalone a prime target for what became one of the states first commercial shellfish fisheries. When xenophobic legislation barred the Chinese and later Japanese labor forces, Euro-Americans continued fishing at a prodigious rate. Armed with long, metal, spatula-like tools, known as “irons,” both commercial and recreational fisherman pried these marine gastropod delicacies from the rocks with the honest belief they could never remove too many. In 1973, with peak landings topping nearly 2 million pounds, the sentiment did not appear to be unfounded. But history reveals a different story.

The combination of extreme fishing pressure, coastal development, and habitat loss began to take its toll. A sudden and rapid decline in black abalone populations led to complete fishery closure by 1993. By this time an even bigger threat had already taken hold. Mass mortality due to a disease known as Withering Syndrome was rampant, especially through the warm, El Niño-fueled waters of Southern California and the Channel Islands. Withering Syndrome, caused by the pathogen Candidatus Xenohaliotis californiensis, impairs digestion and causes atrophy of the abalone’s strong muscular foot. Diseased individuals are unable to adhere to rocks, leading to their eventual demise.

Though the declines were relatively less severe in the Northern black abalone populations, it is estimated that approximately 80-99% of abalone across Southern California and the Channel Islands perished from Withering Syndrome. This was a devastating loss for any natural population to withstand and the culmination of a series of circumstances that led to the federal listing of abalone as “endangered” by the National Marine Fisheries Service in 2009. This delineation under the Endangered Species Act indicates that, without intervention, black abalone face significant challenges and a high risk of extinction.

Fortunately, due to the extreme commitment of a cadre of passionate individuals, this is not the end of this story – but rather the beginning.

"The decline of black abalone, and other abalone species throughout our coast, means that personal experiences with abalone are no longer common among the generation growing up. Black abalone are an important part of our history and culture. Restoring them is vital to the biodiversity and health of our rocky coast, as well as reconnecting the public to this iconic species."

If black abalone were to have a chance of survival, strategic human intervention was imminently required. For over 30 years, a consortium of federal, state, university, and nonprofit partners, known as the Multi-Agency Rocky Intertidal Network (MARINe), has monitored population distribution, trends, and health for a whole suite of flora and fauna across the western seaboard of North America – including black abalone. Without this long-term data set to measure against, both positive and negative population fluctuations would be difficult, if not impossible, to parse. The MARINe data is just one of the critical measuring sticks that scientific agencies like the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) use to inform actions and progress on the road to abalone recovery.

Restoring any species at risk of extinction is no small feat. It requires increasing the abundance, density, and resilience of populations to support long-term survival, as well as an understanding of and ability to address current and future threats. After the black abalone was listed as endangered, this is what the collaborative team, led by NMFS, set out to do. In 2020, the NMFS Black Abalone Recovery Team finalized a comprehensive and multi-faceted recovery strategy for black abalone. The Recovery Plan identifies several key conservation and management priorities to support the goal of establishing healthy, self-sustaining, resilient populations of black abalone throughout their range.

1|Continue to monitor the status and health of wild populations 2|Restore populations using techniques such as translocation and captive breeding 3|Address current and future threats, including disease, poaching, and emergency response to spills, landslides, and debris flows; and 4|Educate the public on the threats these animals face and how people can support recovery efforts

While the strategies and actions laid out in the Black Abalone Recovery Plan appear straightforward and clear, without the hundreds of dedicated organizations and people willing to make them happen, they are mere words on a page. Fortunately, many, if not all, of these initiatives are currently well underway. From the field teams meticulously translocating abalone from the Channel Islands to the central California coast to the laboratory crews in Southern California and Baja California attempting to successfully breed black abalone in captivity. The science of restoration is complex and evolving in execution – and many play a critical role in this ever-developing story.

"I've felt a strong connection with black abalone since I started doing rocky intertidal research over 15 years ago and I still get excited when I see one. Not only are they a very cool species, they are also vital to the health of coastal ecosystems. For many reasons it's important to recover this species. I'm very excited to be a part of the effort."

One of the considerable challenges to abalone restoration lies in their very biology. Abalone are broadcast spawners, meaning that when the conditions are just right they release their eggs and sperm into the water column through the multi-functioning respiratory holes that adorn their shells. In order for the gametes to successfully meet and fertilize into what will eventually become baby abalone, there has to be enough individuals within a close enough distance (approximately one meter as the abalone crawls). Thus, decreases in the number and density of abalone can result in a decreased capacity for reproduction, a phenomenon that scientists have termed the Allee Effect. With decimated numbers across the southern black abalone populations, one of the top priorities of the Black Abalone Recovery Plan was to bring the abalone closer together.

Moving animals in the wild is risky. First, there needs to be a population stable enough that if a few individuals are removed, those that remain are not vulnerable. A tall order for an already sensitive species. Second, not only do the animals need to survive transit, but they also need to be placed in conditions where they have a solid chance at survival. Keep in mind that there are a multitude of converging factors that led to their decline in the first place. Despite the odds, in 2023, a collaborative team representing NMFS, the National Park Service (NPS), The Nature Conservancy, California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW), University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC), and University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) – set out to test whether or not a translocation of black abalone was possible. They began their search for a source population in the same location we began – the California Channel Islands.

Over the years, Channel Islands National Park has provided a refuge for black abalone populations. Though not completely immune to the ongoing challenges of exploitation and disease, black abalone in Channel Islands National Park have recently reached their highest numbers in years. The largest island of Channel Islands National Park, Santa Cruz Island, is co-managed by The Nature Conservancy and the National Park Service. NPS Marine Ecologist, Dr. Stephen Whitaker, worked with TNC Resource Managers to identify abalone populations on Santa Cruz Island that would be suitable to support translocation. For the initial study, 115 black abalone were chosen from the intertidal zone.

The team of researchers, led by UCSC Associate Research Specialist Nathaniel Fletcher, carefully removed each abalone from the rocks – placing them on small plastic cards for easier transit. Before heading to their new home, the abalone were brought into the lab at UCSB for processing and assessment. Not so different from a human doctor’s visit, measurements of size and weight were recorded alongside a tissue sample for genetic analysis, ultrasound for reproductive status, and a tag for identifying the animal again in the future. The Santa Cruz Island abalone were then transported to their new home maintained and protected by The Nature Conservancy – the Dangermond Preserve on the central California coast.

As of the Spring 2024 season, survival rates of the translocated abalone have been reported as high. Monitoring and tracking of this initial population will continue with a keen eye to observe if baby abalone are recruiting to the area – a sign of success. If all goes well, the team will conduct additional translocations to support stable and reproductively viable populations at key locations throughout California. Similar efforts are also occurring to the south in Baja California. Here researchers are working closely with local fishing cooperatives and relying heavily on local ecological knowledge to test translocation protocols in the hopes of ensuring sustainable populations of black abalone in these waters. While some of the abalone are moved to recover areas of low densities in the wild, others are brought into the laboratory for population recovery of a different kind.

"Black abalone have high ecological, cultural, and socio-economic value for coastal communities along California and the Baja California Peninsula. As keystone species, their decline can have cascading effects on marine ecosystems, affecting biodiversity and the livelihoods of coastal communities. By protecting black abalone, we can mitigate these threats and preserve a crucial component of marine biodiversity for future generations."

While translocations like the ones at The Nature Conservancy’s Dangermond Preserve and in Southern Baja provide one route to abalone restoration, full species recovery will require many avenues. One of the major actions recommended by the Black Abalone Recovery Plan is to evaluate the feasibility of a captive breeding program to enhance wild populations. For the similarly endangered cousin of the black abalone, the white abalone (Haliotis sorenseni), collaborative efforts by NMFS and the University of California at Davis’ Bodega Marine Lab have led to the successful breeding and outplanting of thousands of white abalone. Though experiments are still ongoing to understand how these captive-bred white abalone fare over time in the wild, the laboratory breeding protocols have been considered by many to be a great success. For black abalone, similar methods have been less effective.

As an intertidal species, black abalone regularly endure and are adapted to extreme conditions. The tidal flux ensures that they are exposed daily to changes in salinity, temperature, wave disturbance, and a suite of would-be predators. Black abalone resilience is what promotes their survival in this environment, but also makes them notoriously difficult to manage in a laboratory setting. In order to successfully keep and breed these animals, scientists must replicate these demanding environmental conditions. Bi-national efforts to meet this challenge are currently underway.

Teams led by Dr. Fabiola Lafarga de la Cruz from the Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Baja California (CICESE) and Dr. John Hyde at the NMFS - Southwest Fisheries Science Center in La Jolla, California have been hard at work on this problem. Life in the sea is dictated by a suite of environmental cues both physical and chemical. Dr. Lafarga de la Cruz and Dr. Hyde are working to understand how to mimic the conditions particular to black abalone and their ability to spawn reproductive material. In other species, techniques such as rapid changes in temperature or introduced chemicals have led to successful spawning.

So far for black abalone, only the use of a synthetic mollusk hormone has successfully triggered female individuals to release their eggs and only at a fraction of the amount that they would produce in the wild. The researchers have yet to fully understand the pathway to trigger coordinated female and male spawning. Once the teams at CICESE and the Southwest Fisheries Science Center are able to successfully produce healthy juvenile abalone – should everything go well, they can potentially use the framework developed by the white abalone restoration teams to outplant them to wild populations. The work on successful captive breeding of black abalone continues.

"Black abalone are important because they are good for our ecosystem, and that can help us. They are at possible risk of extinction. We have to save them so we can feel complete."

The process of science and conservation management is rarely a straight line. While NMFS’s Black Abalone Recovery Plan provides a comprehensive restoration framework for the species – there are still many unknowns to explore and many stories yet to be written. What is more certain is that with limited resources and animals available – collaborations, like the ones highlighted here and elsewhere, are integral.

Multinational partners across the United States, Mexico, and several sovereign Indigenous Nations are working to fill the gaps in our collective understanding of both current and emergent threats to black abalone populations. Researchers are exploring innovative and novel techniques to understand important factors such as recruitment of juvenile black abalone, continued impacts of Withering Syndrome, and the increasing ramifications of human-induced climate change. Importantly, Traditional Ecological Knowledge, as it pertains to abalone and many other species, is being brought to the forefront of conservation management conversations – such as those happening around the  Chumash Heritage National Marine Sanctuary . Initiated and led by the Northern Chumash Tribal Council in 2015, this is the first Tribal-nominated national marine sanctuary in the United States. Receiving designation status in 2024, the Chumash Heritage National Marine Sanctuary is now America’s 17th national marine sanctuary and protects a significant area of coastal and ocean waters offshore of Central California – important habitat for black abalone –  while also elevating Indigenous perspectives and values of the land and sea.

Continued restoration efforts of this species will need every voice at the table – including yours. There are several ways in which the public can get involved.

1| Engage in responsible tidepool practices. Stepping on, removing, or even attempting to remove an abalone from the rocks can kill or injure it. Treat the area and its inhabitants with respect and understand that it is currently illegal to fish for, catch, or keep any species of abalone in California.

2| Report illegal poaching/harvesting activities. If you witness anyone poaching abalone in California, call Californians Turn In Poachers and Polluters at (888) 334-CALTIP (334-2258). You can also submit an anonymous tip to the California Department of Fish and Wildlife by texting "CALTIP", followed by a space and the message, to 847411 (tip411). 

3| Support efforts to reduce carbon emissions. Our changing climate is resulting in several direct and indirect impacts on abalone including ocean acidification, coastal erosion, and warming seas that exacerbate Withering Syndrome. Every action taken to reduce climate impacts helps foster a better world for both abalone and our planet.

If future generations are to tell stories once more about the black shells stacked 4-5 deep along the rocky shoreline – it is up to all of us. Understanding the story of how we got here is merely the first step.

Taking responsibility and action for how the story continues  – is what comes next.

My deepest thanks to Donna Killoughey Bird, Amanda Bird, and the Gary E. Bird Family for their generous support of this endeavor. Additionally, I am indebted to my amazing Team -RLC partners and to the researchers and stakeholders who kindly shared their time and insights. Your dedication is uplifting and is a beacon of hope for the future of this species. Thank you!  This story is dedicated to Buzz Owen, whose profound work on the Haliotidae was a constant inspiration during this project. - Michael Ready | Photographer

There are special places in this world that hold its wonders. I am immensely grateful to those who bear witness and spend their lives protecting these wild spaces and their inhabitants - from time immemorial to present day. Thank you for trusting us with your stories. - Alex Warneke | Science Writer

Special Thanks to the Researchers and Knowledge Holders Who Made This Story Possible: Alicia Abadia, Karah Ammann, Laura Anderson, Allyson Bailey, Jennifer Baker, Maria Reyna Barradas, , Jeremie Bauer, Rodrigo Beas, Ariel Beas, Christy Bell, Amanda Bird, Sara Boles, Brenda Bonett, Wendy Bragg, Miguel Bracamontes, Olivia Carmack, Nancy Caruso, Jazmine Castañeda, Mia Cortez, Fabiola Lafarga de la Cruz, Miguel Angel Del Rio, Tavio Del Rio, Ismael Díaz Duarte, Charles Dobbins, Eleanor Fishburn (nee Arellanes), Isabella Franco Lafarga, Nathaniel Fletcher, Laura Liliana Lopez Galindo, José Mercado García, Raúl Mercado García, Maya George, Rani Gaddam, Jackson Gross, Daniel Alberto Díaz Guzmán, Walter Heady, Aaron Hebshi, John Hyde, Thomas Hyde, Gloria Islas, Kymberly Jackson, Grace Kumaishi, Keighley Lane, Julio Lorda, Carlos Lozoya, Keith Lombardo, Jesús Mariscal, Benjamin Miner, Melissa Miner, Enah Montserrat Fonseca Ibarra, Lexi Necarsulmer, Melissa Neuman, Adam Obaza, Roberto Oyervides, Buzz Owen, Avrey Parsons-Field, Catherine Purcell, Arjay Raffety, Pete Raimondi, Rex Ready, Meghan Roberts, Brianna Rotella, John Steinbeck, James Stilley, Katherine Swiney, Ian Taniguchi, Brian Tissot, Miguel Angel Tripp, Enrique Valenzuela, Ricardo Valenzuela, Carmen Vargas, Russ Vetter, Susan Wang, Stephen Whitaker, David Witting

Funding Acknowledgement: Funding for this piece was provided by Gary E. Bird Family Fund, National Park Service - Southern California Research Learning Center, and Climate Science Alliance.

Video Music: ArcoIris - Map Data: Nathaniel Fletcher and UC Santa Cruz

Unless otherwise credited - All Photographs and Video © Michael J Ready